346 • Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing, and Education 
systems by systematically manipulating specific 
research variables. Given an incomplete knowl- 
edge of biological systems, it is inconceivable that 
animal experimentation can be replaced, in the 
foreseeable future, by mechanical models or 
other incomplete biological systems. 
Several organizations have developed more com- 
prehensive policies. These statements of princi- 
ple have tended to evolve from early concern with 
solely humane animal care to a concentration on 
the humane care and use of animals. 
Ethical standards and policies may be developed 
in a variety of ways. Some are prepared by com- 
mittees or boards composed of members from 
different areas of research within a given discipline 
(e.g., American Psychological Association), from 
many countries (e.g., International Association for 
the Study of Pain), from several disciplines (e.g., 
Federation of American Societies for Experimental 
Biology), from the faculties and communities asso- 
ciated with a university (e.g., University of South- 
ern California), or from within industry (e.g., Smith 
Kline & French Laboratories). Guidelines may also 
be issued by a professional society as part of the 
requirements for publication of research reports 
in a society’s journal (e.g., Society for the Study 
of Reproduction). 
The comprehensive statements of well-estab- 
lished organizations are examined here to provide 
insight into both the development and the pro- 
mulgation of policies affecting large numbers of 
research investigators and their experimental sub- 
jects. The guidelines of the societies and associa- 
tions reviewed by OTA share certain common ele- 
ments, in that they all support or require: 
• humane care and use of animals in accordance 
with relevant laws and the NIH guidelines; 
• use of minimum numbers of animals of an 
appropriate species; 
• limitations of the time and/or degree of allow- 
able pain or discomfort during chronic exper- 
iments; 
• use of proper types and amounts of analgesics 
or anesthesics or of euthanasia to prevent or 
terminate excessive pain during acute exper- 
iments; and 
• assurance that all animal experiments are con- 
ducted by or under the supervision of qual- 
ified personnel. 
Beyond these common elements, most policy state- 
ments contain principles tailored to the specific 
research interests of each organization’s members. 
The Animal Care Guidelines of the Animal Behavior 
Society, for example, offer instruction on the ob- 
servation of natural populations (9): 
Observation of free-living animals in their nat- 
ural habitat may involve disruption, particularly 
if feeding, trapping, or marking is involved. While 
field studies may further scientific knowledge and 
advance awareness of human responsibility towards 
animal life, the investigator should always weigh 
any potential gain in knowledge against the ad- 
verse consequences of disruption for the animals 
used as subjects and also for other animals in the 
ecosystem. 
American Psychological Association 
The American Psychological Association (APA) 
was founded in 1892 to advance the understanding 
of basic behavioral principles and to contribute 
to the improvement of human health and welfare. 
Today, there are approximately 61,700 members 
of the APA in research, education, and clinical prac- 
tice. Policies adopted in 1979, entitled Principles 
for the Care and Use of Animals , were designed 
to be posted in all facilities and included several 
additions to the common elements listed previ- 
ously. They read, in part (5): 
All research conducted by members of the 
American Psychological Association or published 
in its journals must conform to these Principles. 
Investigators are strongly urged to consult with 
the Committee on Animal Research and Experi- 
mentation at any stage preparatory to or during 
a research project for advice about the appropri- 
ateness of research procedures or ethical issues 
related to experiments involving animals. 
Apparent violations of these Principles shall be 
reported immediately to the facility supervisor 
whose signature appears below. 
All persons in each laboratory, classroom, or 
applied facility shall indicate by signature and date 
. . . that they have read these Principles. 
Although the issues of ethics and responsibility 
were briefly addressed in the 1979 Principles, the 
APA soon felt that a more complete statement was 
needed. The principles were extensively revised 
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