“ETHICALLY IMPOSSIBLE” STD Research in Guatemala from 1946-1948 
Guatemalan Army and Commercial Sex Workers 
On February 15, 1947, the researchers began intentional exposure experiments 
with gonorrhea. 334 Unlike serological testing for syphilis, with its associ- 
ated false-positive complications, diagnostic testing for gonorrhea was more 
straightforward and reliable. 335 In total, 518 soldiers were exposed to gonor- 
rhea, 202 of whom received some form of treatment. 336 
The research in the Guatemalan Army began, Dr. Cutler later explained, as a 
“result of the interest of the medical department” of the Guatemalan Army. 337 
The researchers established relationships with local physicians in the military 
to support their work. Some of these Guatemalan researchers were involved in 
the syphilis work as well. Dr. Raul Maza of the Military Hospital was involved 
in both the syphilis and gonorrhea experiments, 338 and Col. Juan Oliva of the 
Guardia de Honor (Honor Guard) worked on the syphilis experiments. 339 
Gonorrhea experiments among the Guatemalan Army continued through 
July 19 4 8. 340 Methods of infection included sexual exposure, superficial 
inoculation into the penis, deep inoculation into the penis, and superficial 
inoculation following sexual exposure. Subjects included men in the Mili- 
tary Hospital, the Honor Guard, 341 and the Second Army Company of 
Riflemen. 342 The average age of the soldiers involved was 22 years old. 343 
Many also held the lowest rank of private. 344 
Often, the soldiers involved in the experiments were isolated under careful 
control and supervision during the experiment. 345 No discussion of compen- 
sation for the soldiers is included in Dr. Cutler’s reports, beyond some 
purchasing of clothing by PHS Senior Surgeon Dr. Levitan for the “volun- 
teers.” 346 Many of the soldiers were also noted as having been given Arginol 
(a herbal supplement designed to facilitate erections) in conjunction with the 
sexual intercourse experiments. 347 
There is no evidence that the soldiers gave consent for the experiments. Indi- 
rect evidence from June 1947 shows that the subjects at the time were not, in 
fact, “volunteers.” 348 As Dr. Mahoney explained to Dr. Cutler: “[t]he use of 
volunteer groups rather than the type which is being employed would be more 
than satisfactory. Our budget will stand for almost any fee for volunteers 
which you consider to be advisable” (emphasis added). 349 
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