ETHICALLY IMPOSSIBLE” STD Research in Guatemala from 1946-1948 
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See Drug Amendments of 1962, Public Law No. 87-781 (1962), codified at 21 U.S.C. 355 (requiring 
informed consent in certain PDA-regulated research); 21 C.E.R. 50 (same); National Research Act of 1974, 
Public Law No. 93-348 (1974), codified at 42 U.S.C. 218 (requiring informed consent and independent 
review in HHS-sponsored research); 45 C.P.R. 46 (same); Emanuel, E.J., Wendler, D., Grady, C. (2000). 
What makes clinical research ethical? JAMA 283(20):2701-2711; World Medical Association. (1964). Code 
of Ethics of the World Medical Association: Declaration of Helsinki. Helsinki, Pinland: World Medical 
Association. 
See Section “Guatemala Experiments 1946-48” in this report. 
See Section “Guatemala Experiments 1946-48: Race and Secrecy in the Guatemala Experiments: Issues 
of Secrecy.” 
See Section “Guatemala Experiments 1946-48: Intentional Exposure Experiments: Overview.” 
45 C.P.R. 46, Subparts B, C, D; Council for International Organizations and Medical Sciences and World 
Health Organization. (2002). International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research involving Human 
Subjects. Geneva: World Health Organization, pp. 64-66; The National Commission for the Protection of 
Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1978). The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles 
and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, D.C.: Department of 
Health, Education, and Welfare, DHEW Publication OS 78-0012; Ruof, M.C. (2004). Vulnerability, 
vulnerable populations, and policy. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 14(4):41 1-425; Levine, R.J. (1988). 
Ethics and Regulation of Clinical Research, 2nd ed. New Haven: Yale University Press. 
See Section “Guatemala Experiments 1946-48: Race and Secrecy in the Guatemala Experiments: Issues 
of Secrecy.” 
The Nuremberg Code. (1949). In Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals Under 
Control Council Law No. 10, Volume 2. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 181-182. 
Ibid. 
See, e.g., Kant, I. (1959). Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, trans. Lewis White Beck. 
Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company, pp. 37-42. 
Lor prominent discussions of bioethical principles and moral rules, Beauchamp, T.L., Childress, J.P. 
(2001). Principles of Biomedical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press; Gert, B., Culver, C.M., 
Clouser, K.D. (Eds.) (1997). Bioethics: A Return to Fundamentals. New York: Oxford University Press. 
The Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments (1995) alludes to these rules as well. 
de Kruif, P. (1926). Microbe Hunters. New York: Harcourt, pp. 303-325. 
Schloendorffv. Society ofN.Y. Hospital, 211 N.Y. 125, 129, 105 N.E. 92, 93 (1914) (“Every human being 
of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with his own body.”); Katz, J. 
(1984). The Silent World of Doctor and Patient. New York: The Lree Press. See also Lederer, S.E. (1995). 
Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War. Baltimore: Johns 
Hopkins University Press. 
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments. (1996). Final Report of the Advisory Committee 
on Human Radiation Experiments. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 502. 
Ibid. See also Beecher, H.K. Op. cit. 
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, op cit., p. 502. 
Moreno, J.D., Hurt, V. (1996). How the Atomic Energy Commission discovered ‘informed consent.’ 
In DeVries, R., Subedie, J. (Eds.). Bioethics and Society: Constructing the Ethical Enterprise. Upper 
Saddle River, N .J.: Prentice Hall; Bonham, V.H., Moreno, J.D. (2008). Research with captive populations: 
Prisoners, students, and soldiers. In Emanuel, E. J., et al. (Eds.). The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research 
Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 461-474; Harkness, J.M. (1996). Research Behind Bars: A 
History ofNontherapeutic Research on American Prisoners, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin- 
Madison, pp. 102-110 discussing Nathan Leopold’s experiences in the Stateville malaria experiments; 
Ethics governing the service of prisoners as subjects in medical experiments: Report of a committee 
appointed by Governor Dwight H. Green of Illinois. (1948). JAMA 136(7):457-458. 
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, op cit., pp. 53-54. 
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