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Mahoney, J.F., Van Slyke, C.J., Cutler, J.C., Blum, H.L. (1946). Experimental gonococcic urethritis in 
human volunteers. American Journal of Syphilis, Gonorrhea, and Venereal Diseases 30:3. 
See, e.g., Akrawi, F. (1949). Is bejelsyphilis? British Journal of Venereal Disease 25:119; A ly ing , A.S., 
et al. (1948). Procedures used at Stateville Penitentiary for the testing of potential antimalarial agents. 
Journal of Clinical Investigation 27:2-5; Rein, C.R., Kent, J.F. (1947). False positive tests for syphilis: A 
study of their incidence in sporozite-induced vivax malaria. JAMA 133(14):1001-1003. 
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, op cit., p. 92, n.2; Lifton, R.J., (1986). The Nazi 
Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. New York, Basic Books; Proctor, R. (1988). 
Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 
American Medical Association, Board of Trustees. Minutes of the May 1946 meeting, pp. 156-157. 
Moreno, J.D. (2000). Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans. New York: Routledge, pp. 63-71. 
Coventry, W.A. (1947). Report of the Reference Committee on Miscellaneous Business, proceedings of the 
House of Delegates Meeting, 9-11 Dec. 1946. JAMA 133(1): 35. 
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, op cit., p. 76. 
Ibid. Of course, conventions such as the Hippocratic Oath, which is widely known to admonish physicians to 
“abstain from all intentional wrong-doing and harm,” informed the understanding of a physician’s duties well 
before the written declarations of the mid 20th century. See Rieser, S .J., Dyck, A .J., Curran, WJ. (Eds.). (1977). 
Ethics in Medicine: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Concerns. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, p. 5. 
Ivy, A.C. (1947, May). Nazi war crimes of a medical nature. Federation Bulletin 33:133. Ivy also discussed 
his views several months earlier at an annual meeting of the Federation of State Medical Boards of the United 
States in February 1947. See Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, op cit., p. 93, n.5. 
John C. Cutler to John F. Mahoney. (1947, May 17). Correspondence. PCSBI HSPI Archives, 
CTLR 0001122. 
United States v. Karl Brandt et al. (1949). The Medical Case, Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg 
Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 
The veracity of this claim was challenged by many developments in the history of human subjects research 
in the decades that followed. See, e.g., Beecher, H.K., op cit. Scholars have argued that the Nuremberg 
Code itself had little if any effect on mainstream researchers in the United States until the 1960s. See 
Faden, R.R., Lederer, S.E., Moreno, J.D. (1996). US medical researchers, the Nuremberg Doctors 
Trial, and the Nuremberg Code: A review of findings of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation 
Experiments. JAMA 276(20):1667-1671. 
Moreno, J.D. (2000). Op cit., pp. 64-80. 
See Section “Guatemala Experiments 1946-1948: Syphilis Experiments: Overview.” 
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, op cit., pp. 121-124. 
See Section “Background: Developments in the Science of Sexually Transmitted Disease.” As Parran 
pointed out: “You know, we couldn’t do such an experiment in this country.” G. Robert Coatney to John C. 
Cutler. (1947, February 17). Correspondence. PCSBI HSPI Archives, CTLR 0001051. See also Moreno, 
J.D. (2000). Op cit., pp. 28-32. 
As noted, it may be that the researchers viewed moral concerns not as meaningful requirements but rather 
as pragmatic boundaries beyond which they might receive unwanted attention from the press, the public, 
or government. See, e.g., Katz, J. (1972). Experimentation with Human Beings: The Authority of the 
Investigator, Subject, Professions, and State in the Human Experimentation Process. New York: Russell 
Sage Foundation. 
See Section “Guatemala Experiments 1946-1948: Race and Secrey During the Guatemala Experiments: 
Issues of Secrecy.” 
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, op cit., p. 501. 
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