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SCIENCE. 
edge. The distinction is therefore fundamental, and 
should be recognized as really as other differing facts. 
These may be regarded as extreme cases, and it may 
be said that the point of transition, or the boundary line 
between the non-scientific and the scientific may not be 
clearly determined. Be it so ; the claims of science re- 
quire exactness of knowledge to the extent to which the 
exactness may be obtained by observation or reasoning, 
and to which the facts themselves fix the standard. And 
though perfection is the standard and aim, the knowledge 
of a sufficient number of related facts constituting a syste- 
matic knowledge, or knowledge sufficiently “generalized, 
systematized, and verified,” for the comprehension of the 
relations and laws pertaining to such facts, may be re- 
ceived as evidence of scientific attainment, and capacity 
for intelligent progress. A man may possess a practical 
knowledge of carpentry, by which he may perform work, 
when a frame is “ laid out,” without the scientific knowl- 
edge of the principles, rules or methods by which such 
work is planned ; much less without the higher mathe- 
matical and mechanical knowledge of architecture. 
Another point of distinction claims attention. The 
term science is used in both a general, and a special or 
restricted sense. Either the whole body or aggregate 
of facts throughout the whole range of phenomena, re- 
lations, laws and applications, is referred to comprehen- 
sively, as “ The classification of all science ” ; or, a branch 
or sub-science is referred to specially, as “The Science 
of Chemistry.” Frequently a special science is recog- 
nized by the form of statement implying that to which 
reference is made, the term science being used by meton- 
omy for a science, or a particular branch of general 
science, thus: “Science [chemistry] teaches that all 
masses of matter are made up of elements which had 
previously been isolated or separate.” Or this : “ Science 
[the science of the conservation of the forces] teaches 
that a certain quantity of heat may be changed into a de- 
finite quantity of mechanical work ; this quantity of work 
can also be re-transformed into the same quantity of heat 
as that from which it originated.” It may be added that 
the term science is sometimes used in an indefinite sense, 
or without precision, as “a man of science”, — one who 
possesses a wide range of knowledge. 
These distinctions between knowledge and science, be- 
tween non-scientific and scientific knowledge, and be- 
tween the special and general significations of the term 
science, being recognized, it remains only to give such 
forms of definition as shall meet the requirements of the 
case. The following are believed to be sufficiently pre- 
cise : 
1. Science (special or particular) is a system of phen- 
omena, principles, relations and laws pertaining to a spe- 
cial subject. 
2. Science (general or universal) is the aggregate of 
special sciences. 
Many attempts have been made to classify the various 
sciences. The conception that they are naturally related, 
intimately, or more remotely, having general or spe- 
cial connections, has led to such arrangement of 
these in departments and groups as has accorded with 
the fundamental principles upon which they have 
been conceived to be allied. And since science con- 
sists chiefly of the facts, phenomena, laws, and 
principles, material or immaterial, which pertain to be- 
ing, or the forms in which being is known, it is evident 
that schemes of classification will be adopted accordii g to 
the systems of philosophy maintained by those who con- 
struct them. All classification will hence be observed to 
conform in general principles of structure to one or 
another of the three following systems of philosophy 
with respect to existence, or entities, viz. : Spiritualism, 
Materialism or Dualism. The first, which includes Ideal- 
ism, rejects the doctrine of material essence, mind only 
being held to be fundamental and real — the outer world 
only phantasmic or apparent, or as held by some, matter 
being a mode or manifestation of mind. The second re- 
jects the doctrine of a spiritual entity — the mind or spirit 
being held to be a phenomenon of matter ; force, life and 
mind being but properties, or special manifestations of 
matter. Both the above systems are monistic, one sub- 
stance, or essence, only held to exist. The third main- 
tains the real existence of both matter and spirit in es- 
sential connection, yet distinct and unlike, not only in 
essence, but in their laws of development and modes of 
action — two related yet diverse processes. This may be 
termed Dualistic Realism, in contradistinction to the 
Monistic Realism predicated of each of the two former 
systems above mentioned. 
But so diverse and even contradictory, in important re- 
spects, are many of these schemes of classification, that 
the question may be asked with pertinence, is any unex- 
ceptionable classification possible ? Indeed.it has been 
admitted by men of high scientific standing that the most 
perfect c’assification will contain some incongruities and 
minor imperfections ; and that a system substantially cor- 
rect may, notwithstanding, contain something which is 
artific al, or merely theoretic. An apparent incongruity 
may be explained by the fact that several of the sub- 
sciences bear relations to different and widely separated 
sciences as to their fundamental characteristics, as will 
be observed in the scheme of the writer of this article. 
A few diverse schemes are here given to illustrate the 
fact that one’s philosophy will determine his principles 
of classification. 
The fundamental principle of Oken, a German philoso- 
pher, is, that “ Mathematics is the universal science,” and 
holding the transcendental idea that Mathematics is zero, 
equal to nothing (o), has constructed his scheme to em- 
brace three general classes, viz. : i. Malhesis, the doc- 
trine of the whole ; 2. Ontology, erroneously defined to 
be “ the doctrine of the phenomena of matter ,” or what 
seems to be, consistently enough with his doctrine of 
Idealism ; 3. Biology, all orders of life and mind. In- 
cluded in class first he has two groups : 1st. Pneuma- 
togeny, the doctrine of immaterial totalities; subjects 
arranged in the following order : Primary Art, Prim. 
Consciousness, God, Prim. Rest, Time, Polarity, Motion, 
Man, Space, Point, Line, Surface, Globe, Rotation. 
Group 2d, under the term Hylogeny, defined to be “the 
doctrine of material totalities,” includes the following : 
Gravity, Matter, Ether, Heavenly Bodies, Light, Heat 
and Fire. Included in Ontology he has Rest, Centre, 
Motion, Line, Planets, Form, Planetary Systems, Comets, 
Condensation, Simple Matter, Elements, Air, Water, 
Earth, Mineralogy, Geogony. etc. Other divisions of 
this anomalous system are here omitted. The author has 
conceived of a phenomenal process, which is given under 
the term Ontology, but which, so far as it represents the 
facts, pertains to cosmogony. It will be observed, more- 
over, that the place of geogony, to represent a consecu- 
tive order, is at the point where the genesis of the earth 
is given, if it can be found. But this system is based upon 
the fundamental principle of mathematics, which, accord- 
ing to the author, is zero = o ; for, as it is assumed, 
“ Mathematics is the universal science of forms without 
substance.” Such a system of nothings, consisting ol 
terms, names and propositions, without realities, may 
well be termed Idealistic Nihilism ! 
The philosophy of Hegel is founded upon the theory 
that the essence of the universe is a process of thought 
from the abstract to the concrete. His classification is 
based upon Logic, as its fundamental principle, instead 
of Mathematics, which is Oken’s, with which it otherwise 
well corresponds. A quotation from President Hopkins, 
that “ Classification is a law of forces, not a law of logic,” 
may here be given as a sufficient answer to Hegel’s 
principle. 
The method of M. Compte, the author of “ The Positive 
Philosophy,” gives what he calls “The one rational 
order,” as follows: Mathematics (including mechanics), 
