Chap. XXI. 
AND CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
393 
to express his desires by words, which thus become 
the guide to the aid required aud bestowed. The 
motive to give aid is likewise much modified in man : 
it no longer consists solely of a blind instinctive 
impulse, but is largely influenced by the praise or 
blame of his fellow men. Both the appreciation and 
the bestowal of praise and blame rest on sympathy ; 
and this emotion, as we have seen, is one of the most 
important elements of the social instincts. Sympathy, 
though gained as an instinct, is also much strengthened 
by exercise or habit. As all men desire their own 
happiness, praise or blame is bestowed on actions and 
motives, according as they lead to this end ; and as 
happiness is an essential part of the general good, the 
greatest-happiness principle indirectly serves as a nearly 
safe standard of right and wrong. As the reasoning- 
powers advance and experience is gained, the more 
remote effects of certain lines of conduct on the 
character of the individual, and on the general good, 
are perceived ; and then the self-regarding virtues, 
from coming within the scope of public opinion, receive 
praise, and their opposites receive blame. But with the 
less civilised nations reason often errs, and many bad 
customs and base superstitions come within the same 
scope, and consequently are esteemed as high virtues, 
and their breach as heavy crimes. 
The moral faculties are generally esteemed, and with 
justice, as of higher value than the intellectual powers. 
But we should always bear in mind that the activity of 
the mind in vividly recalling past impressions is one of 
the fundamental though secondary bases of conscience. 
This fact affords the strongest argument for educating 
and stimulating in all possible ways the intellectual 
faculties of every human being. No doubt a man with 
a torpid mind, if his social affections and sympathies are 
