240 
Fishery Bulletin 109(2) 
Spawning harems and management 
Mature hogfish form harems; isolated males are some- 
times observed but females tend to occur in pairs or 
groups (Davis, 1976; Colin, 1982; this study). Previous 
550 r 
500 - 
450 - 
350 
• offshore 
o nearshore 
Age 
Figure 6 
Mean fork length (mm) at age of hogfish ( Lachnolaimus maxi- 
mus) collected from nearshore (<30 m) and offshore (>30 m) 
depths for four age classes commonly collected from both 
depth categories. Error bars represent 95% confidence limits. 
Figure 7 
Maturity schedule for male hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus) 
by fork length (top) and age (bottom). Nearshore ( < 3 0 m) 
hogfish are indicated by hollow squares and offshore (>30 m) 
hogfish by filled squares. Lines indicate the predicted curve. 
reports of hogfish sex ratios (0.1 M:F in Puerto Rico 
[Colin, 1982] and 0.2 M:F in Cuba [Claro et ah, 1989]) 
coincided with the modal range that we observed (0.1- 
0.4 M:F). The variability in sex ratios reported herein 
was not related to season; therefore we conclude that 
harems are probably maintained throughout the 
year. Colin (1982) and Munoz et al. (2010) reported 
high site fidelity and restricted home ranges for 
hogfish, at least during their spawning season 
(primarily winter-spring). 
The wide range of sizes observed for transi- 
tional hogfish indicates the mechanism is un- 
der social (rather than genetic) control. Warner 
(1984) showed that female wrasse change sex at 
smaller sizes when densities are high because a 
single small male could not monopolize mating, 
increasing female incentive to change sex. How- 
ever, large male size or low density discouraged 
competition, and sexual transition by females was 
postponed. Smaller sizes and higher densities of 
hogfish observed nearshore would indicate that 
social mechanisms were likely responsible for the 
cross shelf patterns of size and age at sex change 
for this protogynous fish. 
Spawning success was much higher in a protect- 
ed area of the Florida Keys than in an adjacent 
area open to fishing, even though the frequency 
of contact between sexes was the same in both 
areas (Munoz et al., 2010). Munoz et al. proposed 
that lower rates of mortality will create a familiar 
social order, facilitating courtship and increasing 
spawning rates. Higher levels of mortality in near- 
shore waters may thus potentially disrupt harem 
structure and reduce reproductive output in more 
heavily fished areas. 
Conclusions 
Although there is evidence of fishing effects in 
nearshore waters, the continued escapement of 
fast-growing fish to deeper waters reduces con- 
cerns about fishery-induced evolution of life his- 
tory traits that could occur if fast growers were 
being harvested at such a rate that they could 
no longer spawn successfully. The maximum size 
and age of hogfish reported herein are similar to 
those reported for Cuban waters, where there is a 
relatively “unfished population” (Claro et al., 1989), 
and to those measured previously within the cur- 
rent study area (1995-2001; McBride and Richard- 
son, 2007). The technical and logistic limits that 
prevent most spearfishing in offshore waters and 
the behavioral peculiarities that make hogfish less 
vulnerable to hook-and-line fisheries appear to sup- 
port a de facto refuge for some of the faster growing 
and largest hogfish. Offshore females spawn for 
longer periods and produce larger batches of eggs 
than do nearshore females (authors of this article, 
unpubl. data), and therefore the persistent escape- 
