of wheat to the pound sterling, the amount would always be re- 
corded in pounds, shillings and pence as the same, whereas in bad 
seasons it would really mean a heavy rent, and in good seasons a 
relatively low one. 
In lands where hunting is the principal occupation, it is found 
that the measure of value and the medium of exchange is usually 
furs or skins, or perhaps articles of ornament. In North America 
both these forms of currency have existed. Strings of beads made 
of shells, known as wampungeag. served the Indians, both as orna- 
ments and currency. So firmly fixed was this, that the Court of 
Massachusetts, in 1649. ordered it to be received in payment of 
debts among the settlers at a rating of forty shillings for a piece 
a foot long (if of black beads), and tw’o feet (if of white beads). 
This form of currency being very indestructible, was used by the 
Indians as a store of wealth, and was hoarded just as coin is 
hoarded. 
Another, and perhaps better known currency, is the cowTy 
shell. These are used in West Africa. India and Siam. In India 
they generally pass at a rating of 5.000 to a rupee (about .01 penny 
each). In hbji whales teeth have been used as currency, one red 
tooth being worth al)out twenty white teeth. Amber, engraved 
stones, and scarabs have all been used as currency at various times 
and places. 
In pastoral States, cattle and sheep have usually formed the 
measure of value and the currency. The ancient Hebrews 
reckoned their wealth in flocks and herds, although they used 
wedges of gold for a store of value and for payments on a large 
scale. 
Animals as currency have many conveniences, they do not 
require to be transtiorted, but can convey themselves from the 
debtor to the creditor, they are easily counted, and they are. in a 
])astoral state, universally in demand, also they keep at about same 
value for some years. Their chief drawback is lack of divisibility. 
In Greece oxen were used as currency, although at the same 
time gold and silver were used as a store of value and occasionally 
as a medium of exchange. 
It is interesting to us that it is from these pastoral days, with 
their animal currency, that we get many of our words relating to 
coin and currency. 
4'he ligure of an ox was one of the first to be Impressed upon 
metallic currency, and our word pecuniary is derived from the 
latin />ccv/.?-cattle. 
The word fee again comes from the Anglo-Saxon fcoh 
(cattle). While in modern German, the word rich also means 
cattle. In Norse, Anglo-Saxon and old English, the word skat 
meant cattle, and also tax. ])ayraent or tribute. Thus we have de- 
rived the expression Scot free — free from tax or tribute. 
