pronunciation 
Pronunciation of Greek and Latin, (a) Continental 
j>r^ MI/HI Kit,,,, OTMlM a/JMWMMHIMIj \\-trm ntprn- 
nunriatiiui of Latin or Greek conforming or approximat- 
ing to that in use on the continent of Europe, especially 
In the vowel-sounds. As each of the principal nations in 
western Europe pronounces Latin, ami the most of them 
Greek also, in the main after the analogy of its own lan- 
guage, ft Is only In their chief points of agreement that a 
usage which can justify this epithet continental exists. 
The system of pronunciation known as continental retains, 
for the most part, the English sounds of the consonants, 
and pronounces the vowels as in German or Italian. 
There ls a stricter form of continental pronunciation of 
Latin, approaching the Roman, and a modified form, ap- 
proaching the English. The continental system of pro- 
nouncing ( ireek is often called Erasmian, as closely resem- 
bling the modified or modern Erasmian pronunciation 
used in Germany, (ft) Eclectic pronuttciation (of Greek), a 
system of pronunciation of ancient Greek which seeks 
to approximate to the actual ancient pronunciation. It 
agrees on the whole with the stricter continental system, 
and pronounces the diphthongs so that each element can 
l>e heard separately, (c) Engiiah pronunciation (ofGreek\ 
a system of pronouncing Greek with the English sounds 
of the corres]K>nding Latin letters. This system is now 
little used in the United States, (rf) Eityliuli pronuncia- 
. lion (of Latin), a system of pronouncing Latin which fol- 
lows, with some exceptions, the general analogy of the 
modem pronunciation of English. The Latin rule of ac- 
centuation determines the place of the accent ; but the 
vowels are given their long or short English sounds with- 
out regard to their Latin quantity. The English long 
sounds are used at the end of a word (but final a is usually 
obscure, as in coma), before another vowel, and at the end 
of an accented penult or of any unaccented syllable (ex- 
cept penultimate >'). The English short sounds are used 
in a syllable ending with a consonant (except final a, os\ 
before two consonants (not a mute and liquid) and x( = a\ 
and (excepting u) in an accented antepenult before a sin- 
gle consonant, if not followed by two vowels the former 
of which Is , i, or y. C, , and t, succeeding the accent, 
are equivalent to sh, and x is sounded like ksh, before two 
vowels the former of which is an unaccented i or y, unless 
.- t, or x precedes. Initial .r is pronounced z. If the second 
of two initial consonants is not A, I, or r, the first (if not >) 
is silent. Initial chth and phth are pronounced th. There 
are no silent vowels. Different authorities vary these 
rules somewhat, or acknowledge various exceptions to 
them. The English system of pronunciation of Latin reg- 
ulates the pronunciation in English of all proper names 
which have not altered their Latin spelling, and of all 
Latin words and phrases which have become Anglicized. 
(e) Erasmian pronunciation (of Greek), a system the earliest 
champion of which was Erasmus In his treatise "De Recta 
Latin! Grecique Sermon is I'ronunciatione" (Basel, 1528). 
The pronunciation universally in use at that time was the 
modern Greek as used in the middle ages and supported 
by Byzantine scholars at the time of the revival of letters. 
Investigation led to a general conviction among scholar* 
in the west of Europe that the Erasmian theory of the an- 
cient pronunciation was correct ; and by the end of the 
sixteenth century after considerable controversy, em- 
bittered by the fact that the traditional or modern pro- 
nunciation was favored by supporters of the papacy, and 
the Erasmian system by the Reformers the Erasmian 
system had come into general use, and the Byzantine 
method of pronouncing Greek as a living language also 
called the Jteuchlinian, from Johann Renchlin, the flrst 
great representative of Greek scholarship In Germany 
became obsolete in the western schools. In its original 
form the Erasmian pronunciation was distinguished from 
the Reuchlinlan by giving most of the vowels the sounds 
which they have in Latin as pronounced by most of the 
western nations, the Italians, Germans, etc., and by pro- 
nouncing thediphthongs so that each vowel in them should 
preserve its own sound. As, however, this pronunciation 
closely approached that of the modern western languages 
In the sixteenth century, It became practically the usage 
that every nation should pronounce Greek after the analogy 
of Its own language, and, as this has gradually changed In 
each country, the pronunciation of Greek has varied with 
it. In England, In the time of Henry VIII., the pronunci- 
ation of vowels was nearly the same as in continental lan- 
guages. This is evident from the fact that the relation of 
the Greek vowels, as pronounced by the Erasmian system, 
to those In the I .at in alphabet, as used in the vernacular, 
is treated by writers of that time as identical In England 
and on the continent. In England, accordingly, the Eras- 
mian system of pronunciation was insensibly transformed 
Into what is now called the EniilM pronunciation of Greek. 
The system known as the continental Is a partial revision 
of the Erasmian ; that designated as the eclectic restores 
the Enumilan with some alterations. (f) Modern Greek 
pronunciation, the pronunciation of Greek, ancient and 
modem, actually In use In Greece at the present day. 
The change from the ancient to the present pronunciation 
was very gradual. The flrst signs of Its prevalence are 
found In the litcotlan dialect and among Hellenists. Con- 
fusion of . i with i became general about 200-100 B. c.. but 
good speakers still made some difference between these 
sounds till after 200 A. D. The vowel n began to be fre- 
qn< -ntly confounded with . about 250-160 B. a. but per- 
4772 
r, and in having only one sound for each vowel. In the 
ancient pronunciation e and o varied In sound, and there 
are Indications that the short vowels in general differed 
somewhat in quality from the long vowels. The follow- 
ing tables exhibit the leading systems described alxive. 
PHONUNCIATION OK GREEK. 
Continental. English. 
t 
Y' 
;- 
I 
k 
I(orae) 
on (or no) 
b 
g 
d* 
I 
a 
au 
b 
e 
wbi 
Modern 
Creek. 
k 
I 
aore 
k 
kvoraf 
v 
ghory 
dh = TH 
e or a 
6 
ev or ef 
z 
e 
6 
ev or ef 
th 
e 
I 
ks 
o 
e 
a 
1 
f 
ch 
6 
6 
avorot 
Silent 
In all these systems , A, n, r, *, f, o-, r, 4, and i(/ respec- 
tively have the same sounds as k, i, m, , p, r, , ,/, and pt. 
The sounds given in parentheses represent the stricter 
continental pronunciation, y- is y before y, K, , \ (yi be- 
ing v elsewhere); gh represents the corresponding sonant 
to eh (nearly as German g In Wagen as pronounced by 
most Germans). In the Modern Greek system x is ch as in 
German ich, and y is y before a and e sounds (, i, etc.); 
y is ngg, /i - is nil '. and IT Is ml. The strict continental 
system and the Modem Greek pronounce by the written 
accent, while the English and the modified continental 
accent Greek by the rule for accent in Latin. The two 
last-named systems generally make u and - long in open 
syllables anil short in closed syllables (the English pro- 
nunciation treating them as a and i in Latin), but u Is 
always long. 
PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN. 
au 
c' 
ch 
proof 
from the fly-wheel of an engine, or transmitted 
by shafting. The principle of this apparatus Is the 
same In all of its forms. In the accompanying illustration, 
which represents a form of the apparatus used In labora- 
tories, --['a shaft provided with a winch c, and support- 
ed in hearings a In a frame h; j Is a lever having a scale- 
pan suspended from the point 1/1 near the extremity of 
the longer arm as shown at 6, on which, when in use, a 
weight or weights i are placed ; a is a counterpoise ; J Is a 
chain connected at its ends to tightening- bulls k, k ; I liuli- 
J 
i (or ee, a) 
I 
HP 
Q(oreO) 
n 

dz or z 

1 
a(orS) 

!J 
i 

1" 
n (..r a, i, :i o ) 
j 
8 
th 
i 
t 
1 
i 
r 
i 
j 
t 
ks 
hi 
o 
0(0) 
o 
Ol 
Ol 
d 
on 
a 
OH 
1 
u(u) 
11 
V 
u(u) 
t 
vt, vi 
we,whe(ue,hue) 
U 1 
X 
k(ch) 
k 
u> 
6 
6 
<? 
d 
A 
uv 
6(60) 
oil 
Rough breathing C) 
h 
h 
>man. 
Continental. 
Strict. Modified. 
H 
a 
a, a 
i(ae) 
ft 
a 
OU (lio) 
oil 
au 
k 
k 
k 
k 
k 
8 
ch 
8(8h) 
1 
1 
a, e 
eo 
eo 
u 
g 
g 
g 
g 
g 
j 
e 
e 
g 
y 
y 
J 
o 
a, 6 
0,0 
oi 
a 
a 
s 
t 
8(Z) 
sjz) 
t(8) 


n,ll 
w 
V 
V 
ks 
ks 
ks 
U 
U 
1 
dz (r) 
dz 
Z 
i, a 
e, e 
an 
k 
8(8h) 
k 
e, e 
u 
i, i 
6, o 
e, e 
s (z, sh, zh) 
t(sh) 
fl, u 
v 
ks (ksh, z) 
U 
z 
In all these systems b, rf, /, A, k, I, m, n,p,ph(=f), q(qu 
= *w), r, t, th (In thin), have their ordinary English sounds. 
C2 and <7-' represent c and ;/ before e, ir, ae, i, and )/ ; el and 
gi represent c and g before other letters than these. The 
short vowel-sounds are used In the English and In the 
modified continental system in closed syllables, and the 
long vowel-sounds in open syllables, regardless of the an- 
cient quantity. The Roman system gives the same qual- 
ity of sound to a short vowel as to a long, but makes it 
more rapid in pronunciation. In continental pronuncia- 
tion is by some pronounced c between two vowels, and In 
the modified system final ft Is pronounced az, and final "a 
6s. For the pronunciation of c, t, and ( as sh, and of x 
as ksh or z, see (rf). Pronounce n as In German, or as 
French v. 
pronunciative (pro-nun'gi-a-tiv), a. [= It.pro- 
MMUfotfop, < L. prpnuntiatirus, pronunciatintx, 
declarative, euunciative, < pronuntiare, prontin- 
identical In sound with c about 190*200 A. n., and some- 
what later 01 was pronounced like v (U). The vowel u was 
distinguished from i till late Byzantine times. After about 
150-200 A. I>. av, ev came to lie sounded asav, ev, and later 
as af, ef before surds. During the Koman imperial iieriod 
distinctions of quantity fell more and more Into disuse, 
and merely accentual poetry began as early as the fourth 
century. In Egypt and other countries outside of Greece 
these changes of pronunciation begun very early, and even 
the older manuscripts are accordingly full of their ef- 
fects (iotacimu). This system of pronunciation prevailed 
throughout the middle ages not only In the East, but In 
the West till the time of the Reformation. Also called 
iataatm. itacum, HeuchKnian pronunciation. (../) Iteuch- 
linian pronunciation (of Greek). Hameas(/> See (e). (k) 
Koman pronitnciatvin (nf Latin), a system of pronuncia- 
tion of Latin which seeks to approximate to the actual an- 
cient pronunciation. It differs from the stricter omti 
nental system chiefly In the sounds given to tr, as, c, and 
Of or pertaining to pronunciation ; pronuneia- 
tory. 2t. Uttering confidently ; dogmatical. 
The confident and pranunciatm school of Aristotle. 
Bacon, Prometheus. 
pronunciator (pro-nun'gi-a-tor), . [= Sp. Pg. 
l>i-i>iiniiriinli>r = It. )>r<ii(n3i<itore, < L. priniiiii- 
tiiitm; jirouuiiridlor, a reciter, a relater, <. pro- 
niintiitrr, pronttnritire, publish, proclaim: see 
(MtNMNMKW.] One who pronounces. 
pronunciatory ( pro-nun 'si-a-to-ri), a. [<;>ro- 
iiinii-itilor + -//!.] Relating to pronunciation. 
Prony's dynamometer. A dynamometer. 
named after its inventor, much used for ob- 
taining data for computing the power deliv- 
ered by turbines and other water-wheels, or 
Prony's Dynamometer. 
cates wooden brake-shoes, which, by tightening the chain 
/, can be made to press strongly against the projecting 
end of the shaft e; g, y are stop-rcsU, which limit the 
motion of the lever, used only for convenience In applying 
the brake, and not essential to its action. In the deter- 
iiiinatiiiii of the power transmitted through the shaft -, ~ 
moving in the direction shown by the arrow, the counter- 
poise Is first adjusted to counterbalance the long arm of 
the lever and the empty scale-pan. The chain / Is then 
tightened and the scale-pan loaded, so that at a given ve- 
locity the lever Is by the friction of the brake held away 
from the rest ff, but not In contact with o. Under condi- 
tions so established, if L = the perpendicular distance In 
feet of the point ( from the axis of c. s = the weight 
In pounds placed In the pan. r = the radius in feet or 
fractious of a foot of the shaft <, and M = thejuoment of 
torsion In pounds, then will LS,r = M, and V&rrM = the 
power transmitted In foot-pounds during each turn of the 
winch. Also called Protiyt brake. 
prooemiac (pro-e'ini-ak), a. [< proeemium + 
-no.] Relating to or constituting a prooemium 
or preface. 
The in ith | Psalm] is the Proamiac, because it com- 
mences Vespers. J. M. Xeale, Eastern Church, L 858. 
prooemium, prooemion (pro-e'mi-utn, -on), M. 
[L. jirtxemium, < Gr. irpooi/iiov, au opening : see 
proem.] 1. Same as proem. 
Forgetful how my rich pmamion makes 
Thy glory fly along the Italian Held, 
In lays that will outlast thy Deity. 
Tc million, Lucretius. 
In his proannium he plainly intimates that he Is putting 
forth a kind of commonplace book of historical anecdotes. 
Encyc. Brit., XXIV. 41. 
2. Ill flirt., the exordium. 
proof (prof), . and a. [Early mod. E. proofe, 
profe, < ME. proof, prouff, profc, also (whence 
early mod. E. prief, preef) prcef, preeve, preve, 
preove, < OF. prove, procrr, preure, F. preuve = 
Pr. proea, proa, a proof, < LL. proba, a proof, 
< L. probare, prove: see prove.] I. n. 1. Any 
effort, act, or operation made for the purpose of 
ascertaining any truth or fact; a test; a trial: 
as, to make proof o( a person's trustworthiness 
or courage. 
The verray prcevc sheweth It Indedc. 
Chaucer, Nun's Priest's Tale, 1. 163. 
Here and se, and sey thon nought, 
Than schall thou not to profe be brought. 
Babcei Book (E. E. T. 3.), p. 23. 
Madam, yon may make Proof of him, and If your Lady- 
ship find him too saucy or wasteful, you may return him 
whence you had him. Uovxll, Letters, I. v. SO. 
Let there be 
Once every year a Jonst for one of these ; 
For so by nine years' proof we needs must learn 
Which Is our mightiest. 
Tennyion, Lancelot and Elaine. 
2. Evidence and argumentation putting tho 
conclusion beyond reasonable doubt; demon- 
stration, perfect or imperfect. 
Trifles light as air 
Are to the jealous confirmations strong 
As pnmf of holy writ. Shak., Othello, III. 3. 324. 
They [miracles) are not private, but public prooft; not 
things to be done in a corner, for the sake of single per- 
sons, but before multitudes, and In the face of the sun. 
Bp. Attertntry, Sermons, I. xll. 
Credulous enough 
To swallow much upon much weaker/ 
Covper, Conversation, I. 722. 
3f. A thing proved or tried; truth or knowledge 
gathered by experience ; experience. 
Out of your proof yon speak ; we, poor unfledged, 
Have never wtng'd from view o' the nest, nor know not 
What air 's from home. Shot., Cymhellnr, ill. 3. 27. 
4. The state of having been tested :iinl ap- 
proved; firmness. h;mlin--.s. or impenetrability: 
spec! lira lly applied I o anus or armor of defense, 
to note that they have been dulv tested MIH! are 
impenetrable. 
