INTBODU CTION. 
9 
those which are manifested by man, sufficiently prove 
the existence of mental states analogous to those in man 
of which these expressions are the outward and visible 
signs. But when we find an ant or a bee apparently 
exhibiting by its actions these same emotions, few persons 
are sufficiently non-sceptical not to doubt whether the 
outward and visible signs are here trustworthy as evidence 
of analogous or corresponding inward and mental states. 
The whole organisation of such a creature is so different 
from that of a man that it becomes questionable how 
far analogy drawn from the activities of the insect is a 
safe guide to the inferring of mental states — particularly 
in view of the fact that in many respects, such as in the 
great preponderance of 6 instinct ’ over 6 reason/ the 
psychology of an insect is demonstrably a widely different 
thing from that of a man. Now it is, of course, perfectly 
true that the less the resemblance the less is the value of 
any analogy built upon the resemblance, and therefore 
that the inference of an ant or a bee feeling sympathy or 
rage is not so valid as is the similar inference in the case 
of a dog or a monkey. Still it is an inference, and, so 
far as it goes, a valid one — being, in fact, the only in- 
ference available. That is to say, if we observe an ant or 
a bee apparently exhibiting sympathy or rage, we must 
either conclude that some psychological state resembling 
that of sympathy or rage is present, or else refuse to 
think about the subject at all ; from the observable facts 
there is no other inference open. Therefore, having full 
regard to the progressive weakening of the analogy from 
human to brute psychology as we recede through the 
animal kingdom downwards from man, still, as it is the 
only analogy available, I shall follow it throughout the 
animal series. 
It may not however, be superfluous to point out 
that if we have full regard to this progressive weaken- 
ing of the analogy, we must feel less and less certain 
of the real similarity of the mental states compared ; 
so that when we get down as low as the insects, I 
think the most we can confidently assert is that the 
known facts of human psychology furnish the best avail* 
