ANATOMY. 
fetters, and the munificent institutions which 
theyfounded for the propagation of learning. 
The Greek authors were collected, trans- 
lated, and commented on ; but there was no 
improvement nor extension of science made. 
In anatomy the Arabians went no further 
than Galen, the perusal of whose works sup- 
plied the place of dissection. They were 
prevented from touching the dead by their 
tenets respecting uncleanness and pollution, 
which they had derived from the Jews. 
The Arabian empire in the east was over- 
turned by the Turks, who, still more barba- 
rous and illiterate than the Saracens, carried 
ignorance and oppression wherever they di- 
rected their footsteps. They soon destroyed 
all the institutions which the Saracens had 
formed for the propagation of science, and 
threatened Constantinople itself, which still 
retained the faint and almost dying embers 
of Greek knowledge. This city was taken 
and sacked in the middle of the fifteenth 
century; and the learned Greeks fled for 
safety to the western nations of Europe, 
bringing with them the Grecian authors on 
medicine, and translating them; which works 
the invention of printing, that happened 
about the same time, greatly contributed to 
disperse throughout Europe. People had 
now an opportunity of becoming acquainted 
with the writings of Galen and the ancients, 
and, by these means, of arriving at the source 
of that knowledge which they had hitherto 
obtained only through the channel of the 
Arabian physicians. The superiority of the 
former was soon discovered, and the opi- 
nions of the Grecian writers were considered, 
even in anatomy, as unimpeachable. 
For tlie restoration of anatomy, as well as 
that of science in general, we are indebted 
to the Italians. But the first men who sig- 
nalized themselves in this path partook of 
that blind reverence for the works of Galen 
which had reigned universally in medicine 
since his death, and which concurred with 
the universally prevailing prejudices of those 
times concerning the violation of the dead 
to obstruct all advancement of the science. 
As an instance of the latter circumstance, we 
may mention a decree of Pope Boniface 
VIII. prohibiting the boiling and preparing 
of bones, which put a stop to the researches 
of Mundinus. 
Among the circumstances which contri- 
buted to the restoration of anatomy is to be 
reckoned the assistance which it derived 
from the great painters and sculptors of this 
age. A knowledge of the anatomy of the 
surface of the body, at least, is essential to 
the prosecution of these arts. Michael An- 
gelo dissected men and animals, in order to 
learn the muscles which lie under the skin. 
A collection of anatomical drawings' made 
by Leonardo da Vinci at this period is still 
extant, and, with subjoined explanations, 
are found in the library of the king. Dr. 
Hunter hears \yitness to the minute and ac- 
curate knowledge which these sketches dis- 
cover, and does not hesitate in considering 
Leonardo as the best anatomist of that 
time. 
About the middle of the sixteenth century 
the great Vesalius appeared. He was born 
at Brussels, and studied successively at the 
different universities of Fiance and Italy. 
Thus he acquired all the knowledge of anti- 
quity. Not contented with this, he took 
every opportunity of examining the human 
body, and followed tiie army of the Emperor 
Charles V. into France for that purpose. 
Vesalius was the first who maintained that 
dissection was the proper way of learning 
anatomy, in opposition to the study of the 
works of Galen. His extensive researches 
into the structure of man and animals led 
him to detect the errors of Galen, which he 
freely exposed, shewing from many parts of 
his works, that this great man had described 
the human body from the dissection of 
braids. This conduct, which should have 
excited the admiration and esteem of his 
contemporaries, served only to rouse in 
their minds the base and sordid passions of 
jealousy and envy. Galen had held an un- 
disputed sway over the minds of men for 
many centuries. His works were regarded 
as the only source of anatomical knowledge, 
and his opinion on medical subjects, like 
that of Aristotle in philosophy, was resorted 
to in all disputes as final and decisive proof. 
The first man who penetrated this intellec- 
tual mist, and erected the standard of reason 
and truth, in opposition to that of prejudice 
and authority, might naturally expect to en- 
counter the opposition of those who had 
been contented to go on in the beaten 
track. The anatomists who had always held 
up Galen in their lectures as the source of 
all information, were indignant that his 
faults should be discovered and laid open by 
so young a man as Vesalius. The contro- 
versies which arose from this cause were fa- 
vourable to the progress of anatomy ; as the 
several disputants were obliged to confirm 
their own opinions, or invalidate those of 
their opponents, by arguments drawn from 
dissection. 
Vesalius published, at the age of 25, his 
