S. E. MEZBS MAN AND OTHER ANIMALS. 
31 
the dog, or at all events that obedience to his master is a habit, especially 
when the latter is present. And, as to the cebus, imitation, play in- 
stinct, and, possibly, curiosity, would seem to offer sufficient explana- 
tion. And other explanations, on general analogy with these, would, 1 
venture to think, explain other instances of alleged volition in animals 
and } r oung children. 
But additional positive evidence is not lacking, and is obtained when 
we inquire into the effects that flow from the appearance and conscious- 
ness of effortful action. It will be convenient to consider these effects 
first in the child, Avhere they are better known, in- order to focus the’ 
results thus obtained on the problem of immediate concern of the re- 
sults wrought in the race by the appearance of effort. 
The view to be presented on this subject is the theory of the rise of 
self-consciousness, reached independently and almost simultaneously by 
Professors Rovce and Baldwin, and since worked out by the latter-named 
author into detail with a large measure of success. It is the only the- 
ory on this difficult subject resting on a substantial and systematic ob- 
servation of facts, and both for this reason, and because of Bs intrinsic 
merits, it is for the present the best to accept as a working hypothesis. 
At birth the child has no consciousness of self and none of other 
selves; and, moreover, effort of the kind present in all voluntary ac- 
tions — to be distinguished carefully from muscular effort — is wholly 
absent. From the first, however, the child is specially interested in the 
bodily presence and movements of other persons, who are at once his 
earthly providence and the most unreliable facts in his experience. On 
the one hand the ministrations of others give the child nearly all his 
pleasures and are the only agencies succoring him from pain; and, on 
the other, owing to the spontaneity, originality, and independence, so 
characteristic of human actions as contrasted with other movements 
about him, persons, chiefly his mother, nurse, and a few others, are his 
standing puzzles. On both accounts the}^ challenge his attention, and 
hold it more and more. 
Further, only persons furnish him with examples and ideas of human 
actions that he, a human child, can perform. Add to these considera- 
tions the further fact that imitation is undoubtedly one of . his most 
powerful instincts, and it is only natural that the youngster should fall 
into the way of doing after them, as far as he can, the things he sees 
his elders and other children do. Many of these actions, of course, he 
can not perform at all, and all others he follows only very imperfectly. 
However that may be, the observations so far recorded indicate that it 
is on occasions when the performances of others, such as uttering words 
and drawing pictures, are repeatedly and persistently imitated that voli- 
tional effort first appears. Of course, to discover that it then appears 
