18 
GENERAL REVIEW OF LIVING BEINGS. 
must unite their labours before we can foiia a satisfactory system of ClassiAca- 
tion. 
After examining the internal structure of every known annual, it has been found 
that some of them have vertebral, and others have none: this is a fundamental fact. 
Again, on examining further, it is found that all those having vortebrm are also possessed 
of a spinal marrow and a complicated brain; that they have always four organs of 
sense, of various degrees of perfection, with horizontal jaws placed in the head; and 
that they have never more than four limbs, and always red blood. On the contrary, 
when the Invertebrated animals are examined, they are never found to possess cither a 
brain or spinal marrow ; their senses are not so distinctly marked, their blood is white, 
or not so red, and they aU have more than four limbs, or none whatever. Proceed- 
ing further, when the Vortebrated animals are more closely examined, some of them 
are found to continue their species by eggs — they are oviparous; others, on the con- 
trary, produce their young alive — they are viviparous. The latter are found to 
be alone possessed of mammae, for suckling their yoimg, and hence they are called 
Mammalia. 
■Whenever, therefore, we find an animal with a bony skeleton, we know that it 
must either belong to the Mammalia, or to one of the three classes of oviparous Ver- 
tebrata. If it have feathers and lungs, it is a Bird; if it have lungs and no feathers, 
it is a Reptile; if it have gills and not lungs, it is a Fish. On looking further into 
the details of the structure, there are found other varieties, yet ever co-existing with 
certain essential differences. We are thus enabled to as-iign precisely the rank of an 
animal from knowing the smallest part of one of these essential organs; and wc can 
even discover the most carious relations between these differences in the structure of 
animals, and their habits or instincts. All the Camassters, or beasts of prey, for 
example, have the digestive canal more simple, shorter, less powerful, and consequently 
their body more slender; on tlie contrary, they have the conino teeth, or parts analogous 
to them, much longer, stronger, better armed, and moved by muscles of great eneigy. 
Birds of prey have the noils of their claws more fitted for tearing, the beak strong and 
hooked. The Lion, and all others of the Cat genus, are similarly armed with forrai- 
dablo retractile claws, with alternate and sharp teeth, and with a solid jaw-bone, moved 
by powerful muscles. These fundamental characters ore in a manner reflected through- 
out the whole structure, in .such a manner that, upon examining a process or projection 
in one of the teeth of a Carnivorous Quadruped, or the condyle of its jaw-bone, wo 
eau describe the remainder of its frame-work, and write the history of its habits. In 
the same manner, we can form an estimate of the force with which a bird flies, by 
examining the formation of its sternum or breast-bone, to which the muscles of the 
wings are attached. Whenever we find those two small bones, called Marsupial, in the 
pelvis of an animal, wc may be certain that its young arc produced before their time; 
that they are received and protected in a ventral pouch or bag. Finally, we know tliat 
the Ruminantia, or ruminating animals, all have a cloven hoof ; that they all have four 
stomachs, and no incisive teeth in tho upper jaw ; and that all which carry antlers or 
horns on their front, have no canine teeth in the upper jaw. The history of the 
Animal Kingdom offers many facts analogous to these, which will bo pointed out hi the 
course of this work. 
But we must remark, that all the organs of each being have tbe most perfect agree- 
ment among themselves. Never does Nature unite among them characters of an oppo- 
site kind: wo never find the teeth and jaw-bone of the Camassicr, with the cloven 
foot of an herbivorous quadruped. The poets, painters, and statuaries of former 
times, loved to blend these distinctive characters into imaginary and fantastic forms. 
Deceived by their fertile imaginations, they knew not the laws regulating their co- 
existence. Sometimes wc see enormous wings that no muscle can move; sometimes 
the heads of many animals of different species, united to a trunk which belongs to one 
of them, or perhaps to a different animal. Nature disdains to present the discordant 
characters of the Cerberus, Demon, or Angels, of our painters and our poets. One 
universal harmony characterises all her w'orks, and every jiart of her perfect mechanism 
corresponds to tho whole. 
These, then, are the principles of our Classification, founded on the comparative 
importance of tho organs, their constancy, and the laws of their subordination. 
A Stomach represents the Animal Kingdom, and a Root the Vegetable King- 
dom. As these can exist isolated from every other part, wo must seek for other 
organs, to form the sccoiidai-y divisions in the two Kingdoms. 
With Animals, we must first examine whether they are Vertebrate^ ; and in tliat 
case, whether they are Viviparous or Oviparous ; that is, whether they have maramcB or 
not. If they have none, we must next inquire whether they breathe through lungs 
or gills ; and we may further examine whether they are or are not carnivorous, whether 
they fly, walk, swim, or crawl. 
If, on the contrary, the animals under examination be without vertebrm, wc 
examine the general arrangement of their body, their movements, whether tliev 
breathe through branehice, trachea?, or simply through the skin ; whether they have 
one or more hca:*ts, or none whatever ; whetlier they have wings, feet, antenna*, 
or tentacula; whether they have testaceous coverings, shells, or elytra; or whether they 
have nerves, nervous cords, swelling into knots, or an imperfect brain : we may inves- 
tigate their intestines, or their metamorphoses. In this way, wc are conducted by 
degrees fi‘om those first gimat ^risions, which overwhelm us by tlieir magnitude, 
into the more circumscribed groups of genera and siiccies. 
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, 
CONTAINING LIVING BEINGS WITH STOMACHS, ENDOWED WITH SENSATION AND VOLUNTARY MOTION. 
Divisrions. 
I Animals with a bony skeleton, consisting of a cranium, spinal column, and generally also of limbs; 
I. VERTEB31ATA< the muscles attached to the skeleton ; di.stinct organs of sight, hearing, smell, and taste, in the cavities < 
of tlie face; never more than four limbs; sexes separate; blood always red. 
-4. 
Animals witiiout a skeleton, the muscles being attached to the skin; body almost always covered fl. 
with a mantle, which is either membraneous, fleshy, or secreting a shell ; nervous system composed of I 2, 
scattered masses, or ganglions, connected by filaments; with distinct organs of digestion, circulation, I 3. 
and respiration; never witli five senses, and generally without sight and hearing; blood white or 1 4. 
blueish; sexes separate; hermaphrodites, perfect or reciprocal; oviparous or viviparous; eggs some- 5. 
_times without shells. 
'Animals w'ithout a skeleton, divided into a number of ring-like segments, having thejr integuments fl. 
sometimes hard, sometimes soft, and the muscles always attached to the envelope; with or without I 2. 
II. MOLLUSCA. 
III. AUTTCULATA<^ 
limbs; respiring through trachem or air-vessels, sometimes through branchise; nervous system com-^ 3. 
posed of two long cords, sv/'clling at intervals into knots or ganglions. . 
f ^ f*- 
j Animals having the organs of sensation and motion, arranged around a common axis in two or more 2. 
IV. RADIATA -(j rays, or in two or more lines extending from one extremity to the other; approaching nearly to the <| 3. 
j uniform structure of Plants. No circulation in vessels; nervous system obscure. |4 
L 
Classes, 
Mammalia. 
Ayes. 
Reptilia. 
Pisces. 
Cephalopoda. 
Pteropoda. 
Gasteropoda. 
Acephala. 
Braciiiopoda. 
ClllRIIOPODA. 
Axnelides. 
Crustacea. 
Auactinide.s. 
Iasecta. 
Echin'odermata. 
E.ntozoa. 
Acaluph.e. 
Polypi. 
Inpusori.a. 
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, 
Divisions. 
CONTAINING LIVING BEINGS WITH BOOTS, WITHOUT SENS.ATION OB VOLUNTARY MOTION. 
I. A-COTYLEDONES -I Agamous, or rather cryptogamous Plants, ivithout stamens or pistils 
f Plants, having the embryo with only one cotyledon perianth simple, consisting of a calyx 
11. MOXO-COTYLEDONESj only; floral organs generally three, or multiples of three ; nerves of the leaves generally 
I longitudinal ; stem composed of cellular tissue, witli scattered vascular fasciculi. 
ft 
III. Dl-COTYLEDONES. 
plant.s, having their embryo with two cot)’lodons, excerpting the Conifer*, whore there 
are often from three to ten vorticillate cotyledons ; all the parts of the stem di.sposed in 
concentric layers; flowers generally witli a calyx and corolla, the parts of which are 
usually five, or some multiple of five ; nerves of the leaves generally ramified. 
•{ 5 : 
5 :: 
(.3. 
f' 
! 2 . 
Classes, 
Aphyll.e. 
Foliace.e. 
IIypogvnia. 
Perigvxia. 
Epigvnia. 
Mono-chi. AM yds.*- 
Di-chlamydea:. 
n. CoROLLin.OR.V 
b. Calyciflor.’!'- 
C. ThaLAMIFLOB.E" 
