12 
INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS OF ANIMALS. 
Blows and other injuries of tho head will often affect the memory in a manner alto- 
gether incredible and surprising: and similar effects are sometimes produced by a high 
degree of nervous excitement. 
Ideas which resemble [which contrast], or which were produced at the 
same time [or in the same place], have the power of recalling each other. 
This is termed the atsociation of ideas. The order, the extent, and the 
quickness in which this power is exercised, constitutes the perfection of 
the memory. 
Evorj- object presents itself to the memory with all its qualities, and 
all the ideas associated therewith. The understanding possesses the power 
of separating these associated ideas from the objects, and of combining 
all the properties resembling each other in different objects under one 
general idea. This power of generalization, by which an object is 
imagined to be divested of certain properties, which in reality are never 
found separate, is termed Abstraction. 
The power of abstraction appears to belong exclusively to Man; who, by the in- 
vention of general tenns, is enabled to reason concerning entire classes of objects 
and events, and to aj-rive at general conclusions, comprehending a multitude of parti- 
cular truths. 
Every sensation being more or less agreeable, or disagreeable, experi- 
ence and repeated trials readily point out the movements necessary to 
procure the one, or to avoid the other. The understanding thence de- 
duces general rules for the direction of the Will relatively to pleasure and 
pain. 
An agreeable sensation may produce unpleasant consequences ; and 
tho foresight of these consequences m.ay react upon the first sensation, 
and thus produce certain modifications of the abstract rules framed by 
the understanding. This is prudence or self-love. 
The lower animals seem influenced only by their present or very recent sensations, 
and they invuiriably yield to the impulse of the moment. Man alone appears able to 
form the general idea of happiness, .and, by taking a comprehensive view of things, 
to lay down a plan for tho regtdation of his future conduct, and the attainment of his 
favourite objects. 
But an inseparable barrier is placed between man and inferior intelligences, by the 
power of perceiving those qualities of actions which are termed right and wrong, and 
the emotions which attend their perception. The supremacy of conscience, and its 
claim to be considered an original faculty of the mind, are clearly pointed out by Bishop 
Butler. “ Virtue,'* he elsewhere observe.s, “is that which all ages and all countries 
h.ave made profession of in public — it is that which every man you meet puts on the 
show of — it is that which the primary and fundamental laws of all civil constitutions 
over tho face of the earth make it their business and endeavour to enforce the prac- 
tice of. upon mankind, such as justice, veracity, or a regard for the common good." 
By applying terras to express our general ideas, we obttiin certain for- 
mulas or rules, which are easily adapted to particular cases. This is judg- 
ment or reasoning [which may be either intuitive or deductive.'] 
When origin;U sensations and associations forcibly recur to the memory 
[the mind possesses the power of combining and arranging them, to form 
a new creation of its own], this is called imagination, and it may bo ac- 
companied by agreeable or painful associations. 
Wan being endowed with superior privileges, possesses the faculty of 
connecting his general ideas with particular signs. These are more or 
less arbitrary, easily fixed in the memory, and serve to suggest the gene- 
ral ideas, which they were intended to represent. We apply the term 
symbols to designate these signs when associated with our general ideas, 
and they form a language when collectively arranged. Language may be 
addressed cither to the ear or to the eye; in the former case it is termed 
.speech, in the latter, hieroglyphics. Writing is a series of images, by 
which the elementary sounds are represented to the eye [under the form 
of letters.] By combining them [into words], the compound sounds of 
which speech is composed are readily suggested. Writing is therefore an 
indirect representation of our thoughts. 
This power of representing general ideas by particular signs or symbols, 
which are arbitrarily associated with them, enables us to retain an im- 
mense number of distinct ideas in the memory, and to recal them with 
facilitj’. Innumerable materials are thus readily supplied to the reason- 
ing faculty and to tho imagination. The experience of individuals is also 
communicated by written signs to the whole human species, and by this 
means the foundation is laid for their indefinite improvement in knowledge 
through the course of ages. 
Tho art of printing, by multiplying copies, bas ensured the permanence of knowledge, 
and has afforded a powerful aid to the intellectual progress of the species. 
This capacity for indefinite improvement forms one of the distinguish- 
ing characters of human intelligence. 
The most perfect animuls are infinitely below Man, in respect to the 
degrees of their intellectual faculties ; but it is nevertheless certain that 
their understandings perform operations of the same kind. They move 
in consequence of sensations received; they are susceptible of lasting 
affections ; and they acquire by experience a certain knowledge of exter- 
nal things, sufficient to regulate their motions, by actually foreseeing their 
consequences, and independently of immediate pain and pleasure. When 
domestic.ated, theyfeel their subordination. They know that the. being who 
punislies tliem may refrain from doing so if he will, and they assume be- 
fore him a supplicating air, when conscious of guilt, or fearful of his anger. 
The society of man either corrupts or improves them. They are suscep- 
tible of emulation and of jealousy; and, though possessed among tlicm- 
sclves of a natural language, capable of e.xpres'sing the sensations of the 
moment, they acquire from man a knowledge of the much more compli- 
cated language through which he makes known his pleasure, and urges 
them to execute it. 
We perceive, in fact, a certain degree of reason in the higher animals, 
and consequences resulting from its use and abuse, similar to those ob- 
served in Man. The degree of their intelligence is not far different from 
that possessed by the infant mind, before it lias learned to speak. But, 
in proportion as we descend in the scale of creation to animals far below 
man in organization, these faculties become more languid ; and, in the 
lowest classes, they are reduced to certain motions obscurely indicating 
.same kind of sensation, and the desire of avoiding pain. The degrees of 
intellect between these extremes are infinite. 
Dogs, cats, horses, liirtls, and other animals, may have their original faculties modi- 
fied hy personal experience ; and they are accordingly trainetl to tiio performance of 
those extraordinary feats, which in all countries form a favourite amusement of tlie 
people. “ By e.xperience,” says Jlr Hume, “ animals become acquainted willi the 
more obvious properties of external objects ; and gradually, from their birth, treasure 
up a knowledge of the nature of fire, water, stones, earth, heights, depths, fee. The 
ignorance and inexperience of tho young are here plahily distiuguisiiable from tho 
cunning and sagacity of tho old, who have learned by long observation to avoid what 
hurt them, and pursue what gave ease and pleasure. horse that has been accus- 
tomed to the field, becomes acquainted with tho proper height he can leap, and will 
never attempt what exceeds his force and ability. An old greyhound will trust the 
more fatiguing part of the chase to the younger, and will place himself so as to meet 
tliB hare in her doubles; nor are tbe conjectures which he forms on this occasion 
founded on any thing but his observation and experience. This is still more evident 
from the effects of discipline and education on animals, who, by tho proper applica- 
tion of rewards and punishments, may be taught any course of action the most con- 
trary to their natural in.stinct3 and propensities. Is it not experience wliich renders 
a dog apprehensive of pain, when you menace him, or lift up the whip to beat him? 
Is it not even experience which makes him answer to his name, and infer, from such 
an arbitrary sound, that you mean him rather than any of his fellows, and intend to 
call him when you pronounce it in a certain manner and with a certain accent?” 
There exist.*:, however, in a great number of animals, a faculty dif- 
ferent from intelligence, called instinct. This power causes them to per- 
form certain actions necessary to tlie preserv.ition of the species, but 
often altogether removed from tho apparent wants of the individual- 
These arc often so very complicated and refined, that it is impossible to 
suppose them the result of foresight, without admitting a degree of intel- 
ligence in the species performing tiiem, infinitely superior to what they 
exhibit in other respects. The actions proceeding from instinct are still 
less the effect of imitation, for the individuals executing them have some- 
times never seen them performed by others. The degree of instinct i.-* 
by no moans proportioned to tlie general intelligence of the species; but 
it is in those animals which, in tlieir other actions, manifest the utmost 
stupidity, that instinct appears most singular, most scientific, and most 
disinterested. It is so much the property of each entire species, that idl 
individuals exercise it in precisely the same manner, without ever attain- 
ing to higher degrees of cultivation. 
“ Every other animal, hut Man, from the first ouUet of the species and of the >»' 
dividual, is equal to ids task ; proceeds in the shortest way to the attaimuent of hi* 
purpose, and neitlier mistakes tho end nor the means bv which it is to be obtained' 
In wliat ho performs, svo ufteu justly admire the ingenuity of the contrivance and the 
completeness of the work. But it is the ingenuity of the species, not of the individual , 
or rather it Ls tho wisdom of God, not tlie deliberate effect of invention or choirH’ 
which the created being is fitted to employ for himself. His task is prescribed, and 
his manner of performing it secured. Observe tho animal? most remarkabl,' h"' “ 
happy choice of materials, and for the curious execution of their works. The turd, 
how unvaried in tlie choice of the matter she employs in the structure, or in the sUU' 
ation, she has chosen for her eyrie or nest! Insects, most exquisitely artful in 
execution of tlicir little works, for the accommodation of their swarms, and the lodgi'j 
ment of their stores; how accomplislicd in their first and least-experienced attenipi** 
liow uniform and unchanged in tiie la,?tl Nature .appears to have given to the othav 
animals a specific direction to the means they are to employ, without any rational con- 
ception of tlie rad for which they are to employ tlicm.” 
