LIVING BEINGS— ORGANIZATION IN GENERAL. 
3 
carefully examinod, wlien there are vast tracts in the interior of Asia, Africa, America, 
and the isles of the Southern Ocean, which have never been trod by civilized man, 
while many portions, oven of Europe, are but superficially explored, and when the 
depths of the vast ocean present insuperable barriers to investigation, wo may reason- 
ably expect, that the whole number of species will be found to be very much greater. 
Improved microscopes have disclosed myriads of animalcules previously unknown, and 
almost every fluid contains an enormous variety of distinct forms, many of them pecu- 
liar to each kind of liquid. All this appiircut chaos is by the art of the naturalist 
reduced to a beautiful system, and immediately one universal principle of order may 
bo traced throughout the whole. 
Scarcely any oliject in nature is so peculiar in its formation, as to bo at 
once defined by any single trait in its character. We are almost always 
under the necessity of combining many of these peculiarities, in order to 
distinguish an object from others to which it is nearly allied; especially 
when these allied objects possess some, though not all, ol its peculia- 
rities, or when these peculimitios are united to other properties of a dif- 
ferent character. The more numerous the objects are which h.ave to be 
distinguished, the more it becomes necessary to multiply the terms of 
their several characters ; so that, without some contrivance, they would 
become descriptions of inconvenient length. To remove this objec- 
tion, divisions and subdivisions are employed. A certain number of al- 
lied species are collected together into one group, and it then becomes 
necessary only to express, for their respective characters, the points 
wherein they differ, which, according to the above supposition, form 
but a small part of their description. The whole group is termed a 
genus. The same difficulty would be experienced in distinguishing the 
genera from each other, if wc did not repeat the operation, by grouping 
the allied genera to form an order; and then assembling the allied orders 
to constitute a class. Subdivisions intermediate to these are established 
when necessary. This aggregation of divisions, in which the superior 
contain the inferior, is termed a system or method. It may be compared, 
in some respects, to a dictionary, wherein the properties of things are an 
index to their names, being the reverse of ordinary dictionaries, in which 
the names are given, as an index to their meanings or properties. 
Thus it appears, that a collection of individuals of the same form 
constitute ^ species. 
Of species ^ genus. 
Of genera order. 
Of orders ^ class. 
And of classes - a kingdom. 
To explain this arrangement more clearly, wo shall take an example from the Ani- 
mal Kingdom; suppose, tho horse. This animal belongs to the class Mammalia, 
containing all which suckle their young ; to the order Fachydermata, or thick-skinned 
animals, such a.s the elephant, boar, and rliinocoros; and to the genus Eqmis, com- 
posed of animals with solid hoofs, as the ass and zebra. From these allied species it 
h finally distinguished by the term caballus. Thus, the scientific name of tho horse 
^ Equus cahallus, terms derived from its genus and species. But, as different natu- 
falists often give different names to the same animal, it becomes necessary to add to 
these the name of the nahualist who first introduced tho generic and specific names. 
In the above example, we therefore write Equas caballus, Lixs. for the celebrated na- 
turalist Linnajus. In the following pages, we shall give an extensive list of tho various 
®ynonymes, or names bolenging to the same animals, for facilitating rcfcronco to other 
Works on the same subject. 
Such is the method indispensably required, in framing tho arrangement of tho al- 
most unbounded objects of Natural History. 
IVo need «carccly caution our readers against the errors of tho Realists, once tho 
eause of so much contentioti in the schools. The individustls alone, or more properly 
hie particles composing each individual, havo a real existence in nature, while species, 
Sunera, &e. are but general words, invented by man, to express certain points of re- 
■lerablanco, which he perceives among their properties. 
There are two different principles observed in the formation of systems of arrange- 
ment, according as they are intended to be orii/ieiat. or natural. The design of an 
artificial system is to enable the student to find the name of an object, whose proper- 
hes arc known, and to this alone its utility is, in general, confined. Thus, Linnosus 
''>T,anged plants, chiefly according to the number and situation of tho stamens and pistils 
contained in their flowers. But, being fuimded on tho comparison of only one single 
"''sun, the artificial method conveys no general knowledge of other properties, and 
*^re(jucntly separates objects whicli ought never to bo disjoined. It is altogether dif- 
^urent with a naittrul methoih Its tlivisions are not founded upon the consideration 
a single organ, but are derived from characters presented by all tho parts of the 
"''jeet. Accordingly, the objects are dispo.sed in such a manner, that each bears a 
fireater affinity to that which immediately precedes and follows it, than to any other. 
this method, therefore, is good, it is not confined to a mere list 
names. If the subdivisions have not been selected arbitrarily, hut rest 
"Pon real and permanent relations, and upon the essential points of re- 
^®'nl>lanco in objects, the natural method is the means ol reducing the 
bmpenies of beings to general laws, of expressing them with brevity, 
of fixing them permanently on the memory. To produce these re- 
^nlts, objects must be assiduously compared under the guidance of another 
Seneral principle, necessarily proceeding from that of the conditions of 
^'^'stenco formerly explained, called the subordination of characters, •which 
we shall here briefly elucidate. The several parts of a being having a 
mutual adaptation, there are certain constitutional arrangements which 
are incompatible with others ; again, there are some with which they are 
inseparably connected. When, therefore, certain peculiarities belong to 
an object, we may calculate with facility what can, and what cannot, co- 
exist with them. Wc, accordinglj', distinguish by the terms important or 
leading characters, those parts, properties, or constitutional arrangements, 
having the greatest number of these relations of inconsistenc}', or of ne- 
cessary co-existence ; or, in otiicr words, which exercise upon the whole 
being the most marked influence. Others of minor importance are termed 
subordinate characters. The superiority of characters is sometimes deter- 
mined in a satisfactory manner, by considering the nature of the organ.s 
described in the character. When this is impracticable, we must resort 
to simple observation; and, from the nature of a character, must infer 
such to he the most decided as are found the least liable to vary, w'hen 
traced through a long series of beings, differing in degrees of resemblance. 
For this reason, we sliould select for the grand divisions, those characters 
which are at once important and permanent; and may reserve, ■with pro- 
priety, the subordinate and variable characters for the minor subdivisions 
of our system. 
There can he but one complete system, and that is, the natural method. 
Here species of the same genus, order, or class, resemble each other 
more than they do the species of any other corresponding division ; the 
place of each object is decided by its relation to surrounding beings; [and 
the whole arrangement forms a type of that beauteous system of nature 
which, “ changed tlmo’ all, thro’ aU remains the same." Even Linnaeus, 
who framed the iiest artificial system ever presented to the world, ob- 
serves, in his Philosoph. Bot. § 77, that natural historians should regard 
the natural method of arrangement as the ultimate aim of their labours. 
In a -word, the natural method is the very soul of Natural History. 
“ Unerring nature, still divinely bright. 
One clear, unchanged and universal light.”] 
SECT. II or LIVING BEINGS, AND OF OBGANIZATION IN GENERAL. 
Life — Itsdefinition — Death — Oryanhation — Generation — Spontaneous Generation 
— Reproduction — Species — Varieties — Permanence of Species — Pre-existence of 
Germs. 
Life, being the most important of all the properties of created e.xistence, 
stands first in tlio scale of characters. It has always been considered the 
most general principle of division ; and, by universal consent, natural ob- 
jects have been arranged into two immense divisions, organic beings 
[comprising animals and plants], and inorganic beings [comprising mine- 
rals.] 
The word Life ia used under two significations which arc often confounded. It 
may he applied merely as a general term to express, with brevity, tho various pheno- 
mena peculiar to living beings ; or it may signify the cause of these phenomena. It 
is in tho latter sense that the terras vital principle, or principle of life, are employed ; 
being, in this rospeet, perfectly analogous to the terms gravity, heat, attraction, and 
electricity, which are used hi the general sciences under a twofold signification, the 
one physical, — the other metaphysical. But, it is with the phenomena alone, or the 
physical sense of these terms, that Natural Philosophy has any concern. Tho know- 
ledge of causes is removed far beyond the reach of human reason; and, by neglecting 
to discriminate between these two senses, ancient philosophers before Lord Bacon, 
and too many modern ones shiee his time, havo fallen into endless discussions, and ob- 
scured the light of real science, "yet, it is difficult, upon a subject so interesting as 
life, in which we all feel deeply concerned, to restrain curiosity wdthin the bounds of 
reason and philosophy. A recent anonymous writer asks, “ Who has not put to him- 
self the question ‘ What is life?’ Wlio would not receive a clear and just solution of 
tho inquiry, with a feeling of interest, far beyond that afforded by the successful result 
of any ordinary scientific investigation ? We can comprehend part of the mechanism by 
which life acts ; wo feet its result. We see that mechanism to be so delicate, so com- 
plicated, so fragile, so easily set wrong, while our interest is so deep that it should act 
well, and permanently well, that the exquisiteness of adjustment, the skill of contrivance, 
and tho completeness with which the intended result is secured all subjects of distinct 
and interesting investigation — only increase tho earnestness of our wish, that wo could 
see beyond the mechanisni, and understand that, wliich it is permitted us to know only 
by examining its phenomena. 
“Wo do not commonly oonsiiler how much is given us in life, — the daily enjoyment 
of the boon renders us insensible to the variety and plenitude of its richnes.s. We 
shall become more sensible of it upon contemplating the various tissues of organic 
particles that have been formed; tho number of properties that are attached to oach; 
tho number of organs that arc constituted by their aggregation and arrangement ; the 
number of functions that are exercised by those organs; and the number of adjust- 
ments by which all arc combined, harmonized, mid made effectual to the production of 
one grand result. It is then wo perceive, how many things must exist, how many 
relations must he established, how many actions must bo p’erformed, how many 
