G8 
FIRST CLASS OF THE VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 
continual battles, aggressions, and carnage. Others, agsun, avoid the dangers of these 
murderous combats, by feasting on carcasses recently dead, or even already putrified. 
The Lion kills all that he eats, but the Hynsna will extract his meal from the 
charnel-hou^e or tomb. There are also some Carnivorous I^Iammalia which confine 
themselves to sucking the blood of other animals; some species of Weasels and Bats 
are examples of this, especially the Polecat (^Mustelaputorixu) and the Varapyre Bat 
{Vampirus tpectruni). The Opossums (^Didelpkis) are nourished almost wholly 
upon the eggs of other animals. The Ant-eaters (^Myrmecophaga), being destitute of 
teeth, feed upon Ants and other Insects which adhere to their glutinous tongue. 
The Herbivorous animals, on the contrary, as has already been observed, have their 
jaws less powerful, moved by more feeble muscles, armed with teeth fitted for grind- 
ing rather than biting or tearing. Their limbs are less disposed for aggression, 
bat in return, their stomach is more capacious, its sides arc more muscular and 
.hick, and sometimes it is multiplied and complex, their intestines are larger and 
longer, while their forms are more massive. Those animals which Kuininate 
(^liuminantia), that is, whose food returns a second time to the mouth through the 
cesophagus, to be again chewed, after having already remained in the stomach, 
generally have horns on their foreheads, and want the incisive teeth in the upper 
jaw. They all have four stomachs, or rather one stomach subdivided into four cavities. 
These divisions are disposed in the following manner. The first is the Paunch 
(veyitricnlm ) ; this is the largest, and occupies almost the entire left aide of the 
abdomen. The second stomach or Honey-comb (^reiicuhtm)^ being the smallest of 
the four cavities, is placed on the right and before the Paunch. Still further to the 
right, and almost behind the liver, is the third stomach orfeuillet {omasum) f which 
communicates by a small opening with the fourth stomach or caillette {abomasum). 
The last is analogous to that single one found in most other Mammalia, and it com- 
municates with the duodenum or intesilue, by a kind of pyloric opening. The 
separation between the first and second stomach is not very strongly marked; but 
the others are divided from each other by well defined contractions which prevent 
any confusion among them. The cesopliagus is inserted on the right side of the 
Paunch, and a kind of prolonged gutter causes it to communicate with the second and 
third stomachs. 
When the food has just been masticated and is swallowed for the first time, it is 
introduced into the first stomach or paunch ; afterwards into the second ; and it is only 
after the food has been submitted to the action of these organs, after it has been im- 
pregnated with the juices which are secreted there, and has been softened, that it re- 
ascends through the esophagus into the mouth, in order to undergo a new trituration 
more perfect than the former. When swallowed this second time, the food is placed 
in the third stomach, without having gone near the Paunch and Honey-comb. The 
very young Ruminantia, which are still fed alone upon the milk of their mother, 
have not yet obtained this ruminating power ; but the fluid which they suck passes 
at once into the last stomach, just as happens among the adult animals after they have 
ruminated. 
Several Cetacea have stomachs nearly as complicated as tlie Ruminantia. The 
Dolphin (Delphinus detphis) and the Porpoise {D. phoc(£na)t for example, h.ave, 
for a stomach, four cavities placed in a row, one after the other. There exists, also, 
between the first three cavities, a kind of short canal, forming a narrow passage, 
by means of which the communicatiou is established from oue to the other. Yet 
none of these animals have been observed to ruminate. 
Many Rodcutia have their stomach divided into several cavities by contractions ; 
some appear to have two stomachs, but this last arrangement is found more particu- 
larly among the Marsupialia, and especially in the Kangaroo-Rat {Ilypsiprymnus 
IVhite). Those herbivorous animals which do not ruminate, commonly have the 
esophagus inserted towards the centre of the stomach. The latter organ is disposed 
in a manner to prolong the stay of the food on the same side as the spleen, being the 
left, and the orifice of the pylorus is voiy narrow. We may remark here, that the 
Rodentia usually have two incisive teeth in each jaw, isolated from all the other teeth, 
and their hinder limbs being almost always longer than the fore, dispose them natu- 
rally to leap. 
The digesrive organs both of Man and the Quadrumana hold a medium station 
between the Herbivorous and Carnivorous animals. INlan has all the kinds of teeth, 
the trenchant or tearing teeth, like the Carnivora, and the molar or grinding teeth, 
like the Herbivorous animals, without any very sensible inequalities. His lower jaw 
moves in all directions ; horizontally, like those animals which live upon herbs, and 
perpendicularly, like the Carnassiers. His stomach is single, but tolerably large, and 
the sides are of a medium thickness. The rest of his organs hold a mean between 
those two divisions of Mammalia just mentioned. 
The Bears (Vrsm) and the Badgers ('il/c/t.v), which appear specially organized for 
being carnivorous, will, however, cat, almost indifferently, all kinds of food, drawn 
indiscriminately from the two kingdoms of organized beings. But generally speaking, 
it must be considered a rare occurrence to find a carnivorous animal feeding on 
vegetables, or an herbivorous animal eating animal substances. This is only re- 
marked when they are urged by an extreme famine, or where they have long been 
domosticated, and have thence acquired the omnivorous propensity of M.in himself. 
Thus the famished Dog cats bread, and sometimes even vegetables. Cats, when 
deprived of all nourishment, have been known to devour, in the extremity of their 
hunger, even the flaxy fibres of a rope, flie Rats, also, although organized in every 
respect for a vegetable diet, will sometimes oat auir.ial substances. It has been 
remarked, that when flesh i5 placed in the stomach of a Horse, it remains there with- 
out undergoing any alteration, but he has been known to eat fish; and Goats have 
been to devour animal substances, which they manage somehow to digest. 
In respect to drinking, the Carnivorous animals, whoso digestion is more rapid, 
generally experience a less urgent necessity for water than the Herbivorous tribes. 
It has been proved by iMarcorelle, tliat when all the other conditions continue the 
ftame, they can remain without water most easily when fed upon fat and oily alimenti. 
The Camel and Dromedary are c.xceptions ; for, though herbivorous, they can remain 
without di’inking for many days longer than any other animal. 
The manner in which the Mammalia drink varies much, Man swallows liquids in 
the same manner as solids, but he drinks also by suction. The carnivorous animals lap 
up liquids, and they could be made to die of thirst by keeping their trachea open ex- 
ternally, which would take away from them the power of sucking up the liquid. The 
Bear bites the water like a fruit or any other solid aliment, and neither laps nor sucks. 
Most of the Herbivorous animals drink by suction, and to make them perish with 
thirst it is only sufficient to pai'alyzc their tongue. It has been said that Man is the 
only animal who drinks without being thirsty. 
There are some animals which are seldom observed to drink ; these are chiefly car- 
nivorous. We have already noticed that the Camel and Dromedary can remain 
several days without drinking, and this abstinence from liquids does not appear to 
make them suffer. There are, however, in the stomachs of these animals certain 
separate cavities, which seem to be intended to keep the fluids in reserve. In other 
respects, animals appear to fatten in proportion as they drink less, up to a certain 
limit, after which a too great abstinence from water makes them fall off in bulk. The 
Horse and the Ass, according to Aristotle, form an exception to this rule, on ac- 
count of the enormous quantity of fleshy and often dry herbs with which these ani- 
mals fill their stomachs almost without intermission. It is customary to suppress 
the drink of Pigs and other domestic animals gradually when it is wished to fatten 
them. 
Marcorelle, a member of the ancient Acadhnie dcs Scicncesy made several experi- 
ments to ascertain the effect of drinks upon the bulk of the body. lie passed two 
entire months without drinking water, wine, or any other fluid ; and he lost, during 
that interval, five pounds and a half of his entire weight; he at first weighed 120 
pounds. After this he resumed his usual diet, eating the same things as before, but 
adding to it wine, either pure or diluted with water. During six days of this altered 
regimen he recovered six pounds of his substance, that is, one eleventh part more 
than what he had lost. He observed also, that vegetables, of all food, were the 
most liable to excite his wish for drink. We are not, however, to infer from this, 
that drinking much is favorable to cyihonpoint ; for the contrary is nearer the truth. 
Too much drink fatigues the stomach, and weakens the digestion of the food. Tea, 
and other hot drinks, hasten the digestion ; but it is rather to hurry it on, than to 
accelerate it beneficially, for such drinks occasion the aliment to pass through the 
pyloric duct before being sufficiently chymified. In respect to alcohol and other 
exciting fluids, spicy, salt, or acid, these fluids favor the production of chyle, and, 
in oue sense, they occasion a more abundant flowing of the intestinal juices, gastric, 
pancreatic, and biliary. But alcoholic drinks ultimately impede nutrition by the ex- 
citement which they cause in all the organa, in unnaturally quickening the pulsations 
of the heart They are also injurious from interrupting the sleep, which they render 
either short or troubled. 
Whatever may be the nature of the food, or in whatever animal it may be depo- 
sited, the alimentary mass accumulated in its stomacli usually remains there one or 
more hours before any considerable alteration can be perceived. After that, the 
aliments begin to soften, to change their colour, and often their smell. With the 
exception of those grains which arc entirely covered by an insduble epidermis, the 
change begins on the surface of the alimentary substances; and it must be remarked, 
that the properties of the chyme differ exceedingly according to the kind of food 
from which it results. Those herbs which have been triturated and twice masticated 
by the Ruminants give a different stomachic product than animal food, or the grains 
of the Cerealia. It may also be observed, that the digestion of animal substances is 
more rapid than that of a vegetable diet. Accordingly, the Carnivorous animals 
digest their food more rapidly than the Herbivorous ; and IMan, with the Planiigrada, 
which are omnivorous, digest meat more rapidly than leguminous plants or fruits. 
It often happens with these animals, that vegetable food will traverse the entire in- 
testinal canal, without having lost its natural and distinctive qualities, or being in 
any way altered, which happens very rarely with animal substances. 
The aliment, when softened and digested by the stomacli, being now c/tyme, forms 
a mass nearly homogeneous, and of a different colour iu different animals, but usually 
grayish in our species, and in several others, of a sharp odour and taste, and, from its 
acidity, turning all vegetable blues into red. 
In the greater number of Mammalia, it is the stomach alone which performs tliis 
first part of digestion — ^thc formation of chyme, an<l the intestines do not proceed to 
transform the chyme into chyle, until the moment when the stomach has completed 
this preliminary process. But there are some animals among whom the relative 
functions of the stomach and intestines are not confined to these definite functions. 
The Horse, for example, which has a very narrow stomach, and yet will cat without 
intermission for several hours, cannot retain the food iu his confined stomach for a 
sufficient length of time to be completely chymified. Accordingly, the pyloric duct 
of the Horse remains continually open, and the food passes onwards into the intestine 
without interruption, although not completely chymified ; and the process is com- 
pleted by the intestines, without this confusion of functions being in any way preju- 
dicial to digestion. 
Tlie time winch the food takes to chymify varies much from one animal to another. 
The Jiammalia require only a few hours to perform this function, and the same thing 
happens with the Birds of Prey ; but the Serpents and the greater part of the Rep- 
tiles require entire days and weeks to digest a single meal. The period of time 
which the same animal takes for digestion is quicker or slower, according as the state 
of its health is more or less perfect, according as the food is more or less abundant, 
or is in a greater or less state of minute <livision ; and also, according to the peculiar 
nature of the substance to be digested. The aliment is finally submitted to the 
action of the intestinal juices, and the surrounding organs continually maintain a de- 
gree of hcatv which is always very near to lt>i^ Fahrenheit. 
The minute division of the food by mastication is a process indispensable to a lapid 
digestion. While the teeth and jaws are performing their function, the salivary 
glands of the mouth conlinuo to secrete a fluid in very considerable quantity. In 
Ruminantia, and generally iu itll animals living on a vegetable diet, these salivary 
glands arc very Urge, while in the carnivorous tribes they are very small. 
The entire length of the alimentary canal differs materially among the Mammalia. 
Its length, with the Ruminantia, is twenty-seven times that of the body, while it 
