23 
THE TROPICAL AQRICULTURIST 
[July i, 1891 * 
What, however, is still to fear, ia, first, that a 
faiuine inay ouioe in any part before even the 
authorities are aware of it, for they are so few 
and BO w idely scattered, while the people themselves 
will never coniplaio, but bear their misfortunes 
in silence ; soeouilly, the siinultaueous occurrence 
of fainino in different tigione, for, there being 
no stored resorvea of gram in the country, it is 
only possible to iin-igine how direful in its effects 
such a calamity must of necesbity be. 
Next to people and climate, a word mote must 
bo Bail! about the soil than baB already been included. 
But little is known about it beyond wbat the 
cultivator himself knows practically. The main 
geological typts are few, but the local sub- 
divisions are many, and for each of these the raiyttt 
has his particular name, and the knowledge of 
what it will bent produce. There are no peaty soils, 
nor anything skin to our gravels, oolite or chalk 
Boils, nor jet to our heavy clays, but there are 
the vBBt plains of alluvium already referred to, 
the bingular black cotton soil, and subEuils com. 
posid of a concretionary kind of lim. stone known 
as hankar. OlaBsidoalion of the soil acooruing to 
its oapabilitioB is the system on which asBi-esinent 
of the land revenue (for the Oovernn.eut is practi- 
cally in the position of landlord) is based, and 
this 18 modified according to the various local 
ciroumstanoes, the facilities for irrigation, ete. 
In a country where irrigation plays eo important 
a part, the relation of soil to moisture is 
necessarily one of tho greatest moment. It is true 
that in some parts the superfluous water has to 
be i d off iliB lend, but this ia done by carrying 
it in channels or hy a system of cnihanum nts 
which prevent tho rush of water over the sur 
lace, and ihe couseqU'Ut washing awuy of the 
top soil ; it is not done by any subsoii drainage 
system, so familiar- to us in this couniry. 
But the main problem iu India is not how to 
remove the water, but how to briug it to the soil, 
and then how to keep it there. Indian soils are 
norma ly dry, English soils wet. 
The mention of this naturally leads one to consider 
whfcthtr tho native bystmi of Blnillow ploughing, 
or rather scratching the ground, ia so very wrong 
as would be improvers have made it out to be. 
The action of tho native plough resembles that 
of a pointed stick rantui'g just below the suitace 
of tho pTOund, some 2^ to 3 ir cites deep, and stirring 
the soil whilst it tears out and brings to tho sur- 
face any infesting weed. Though there may bo 
instances where dtep-plougliing would bo effectual. 
1 believe that in the great majority of cases the 
native system of ploughing is the one best adapted 
to tho ccuditioi.s, niul that, wsro a furrow-turning 
plough used, file nsu't would be to lose a great 
deal of tho precious moisture. Again, it the soil 
bo at all stiff, the slice turned up by au English 
plough would epeccily bco me baked in the h.'t sun 
and r.nuuiu a trigk rather ih.aii soil. The native 
ploughing, on the contrary, pulverise the toil, 
and repeated going over the laud, while it costs 
tho cultivator more (tor the bulb oka and 
tbe labour are his own), inables him to get that 
fine tilth which ia eseeniisl to him, and thereby 
he docs not lose the moisture. Friquontly with a 
furrow-tu'uirg plough it would happen that weeds, 
instead of being torn out as they would ba by tho 
digging fcclion of the native plough, would bo buried, 
and there ate many of llie^e in India which would 
speedily spring up again and form a dense matting.* 
■~d*"TbS'o"iB mrely^a iiTedinm f etwoen Ininiug up rtiB 
subsoil and mere aciatcliing of the surface. Ploughs 
wbicli, while cot tmuing up the Biibsoi', would stir 
it to at lessb six inches below the surface would surely 
be bencfioial'~"ED. T, d. 
Of the soil coiistituentp it may be said tha^ 
while phosphorio acid, potash and lime are present 
in greater abundance in most Indian soils than 
ill English ones, theta is a marked deficiency both 
of vegetable matter and of nitrogen. Black cotton- 
soil has been referred to as a special feature, and 
it is popularly supposed to ba of inexhaustible 
fertility. Other traots there are which every year 
receive a fresh renewal of silt from rivers and 
mountain streams, and these in the Punjab 
constitute the rich wheat-growing areas whioli 
need no other manuring tbaa wiiat the silt affords. 
But there are other not so desirable effects of 
river and flood, and often much land is ent up 
with ravines and rendered uneulturable. Lastly 
there is the singular appearanoe of a saliue 
elHotescenoe known ns reh, a mixture of various 
soda-salts, principally tho carbonate and sulphate. 
In the North-West Pruvinoes alone, between four 
and five Ihouaend square miles are thus aff loted 
and rendered unproductive, .■'uoh land is termed 
usar. The singular point is that amid those areas 
there are patohES not only cnlturable, but on which 
some of the riohest crops are grown. The problem 
oveiooming war has long engaged the attention 
{ the Agrionlturul Bcpartmeiits. Canals are charged 
w iih bringing it, but it is clear that it ia a saline 
deposit existing below tho surface, which, under 
the combined, influence rf water and a strong 
ivapornting force like the sun, is first dissolved 
and then brought to the surface, where salt 
crystallise out and remain ns a white incrustation. 
A most interesting question, but one to which 
at this stage, no definite reply can be given, aiises, 
as to whether tho soil of India is, under tho system 
of agriculture pursued, undergoing sxhausti ii or 
not. The average yield of wheat, for fxarap e, may 
he set at nboti I 12 bushehp>r acre over tlio wlu lo 
country, as against the 30 bushels of Eng'and. 
A largo proportion of this goes for export, aud tbe 
increasing area under wheat shown in the agri- 
cultural returns denote! that this export ia one 
that is likely to continue. Tho possibility of soil 
exhaustiou going on can only be determined by a 
careful study of what is removed from iho I'.ud, 
and how fat this is replaced either by the foroea 
of nature or by tho artitioial reiT-nishmcnt of 
manuring. 1 have mentioned the dtfioioncy of 
nitrogen which 1 observed in the case of several 
liidisn soils, but it is worthy of note, too, how 
very largo a proportion of the crops annually grown, 
olsoot tho trees and shrubs, and even of the weeds, 
arc legumnous in oharnoter, and may tbus, if recent 
invesCgatons bo correct, possibly derive their nitro- 
gen d reot from tho atmosphere. • * * 
The next point of striking imporlsnoo in the 
oxtecual surroundings of agriculture ia the supp y 
of wood for timber and fuel, and tbe provision 
of gtuzing by moans of those forests which still 
remain to the country. There can be little dcubt 
that India in tho past has suffered great detriment 
both SB regards its climate and its agrioulturo 
by the reckless devastation of wood and forests 
which has until within recent years been allowed 
to go on unchecked. It is, therefore, a matter of 
much satiafaotion that now, late though it be. 
tho charge of tho forests has been put under a 
responsible Deportment, and that they are being 
pre eived for tlieb. nefit of tbs State and the wel- 
fare of the people. Not that the work is complete, 
nor that reservation of forest land has been rffentod 
without considerable friction from an inoreasing 
population whii b presses its cultivation up to the 
limits of the forest area in the endeavour to find 
room for itself. But it ia equally certain that the 
Native if left to himself, would as speedily ex- 
terminate what remains as he has done in the past 
