i4 [January, 1902.] 
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE JOURNAL. 
Vol. VIII. No. 85. 
respectively. The other three canes in the above list are not so well-known, but from the 
results quoted they appear to be worthy of further attention. D. 95, which has yielded such 
good results in Antigua, is here only twelfth, showing that it is not so suitable for the soil in 
St. Kitts. Yery few rotten canes were met with at any of the stations, and the new 
varieties appear to he less liable to fungoid attacks than those previously Cultivated, besides 
yielding in some cases much better results. 
The experiments on the “chemical selection” of canes have also been continued. In 
this method canes yielding a juice which analysis shows to be richest in sugar are selected for 
propagating from, in the hope that the plants obtained from them will maintain or increase 
the yield of sugar. For the purpose of experiment, the ten richest and the ten poorest canes 
of the white transparent variety were chosen, as it was thought that the results of the selection 
would be most strikingly shown by a comparison of the two series, one tending toward a 
richer and the other toward a poorer juice. The experiments of course will have to be carried 
out for several years before any definite conclusions can be drawn, but it may be recorded that 
the first year’s results show a gain of 1 per cent, in favour of the “ high ” canes, which, how- 
ever, is so small as to be within the limits of experimental error. 
The manitrial experiments are fully described in Part 11. of the report, which includes 
43 tabular statements of results, and here it will only be possible to summarise the chief 
ieatures. The manures experimented with were as follows : — -(i) nitrogen, as sulphate of 
ammonium, nitrate of sodium and dried blood ; (2) phosphate, both as basic and super- 
phosphate ; (3) potash, as sulphate, and (4) guano. In the experiments on plant canes it has 
been found necessary to distinguish those stations where pen manure was employed from 
those where it was not, since the results obtained in the two cases differ comsiderably. 
Where pen manure had been employed the application of nitrogen produced no material gains, 
potash gave small gains, phosphate caused losses, and guano no considerable gains. Where 
no pen manure had been applied, and the fields were in good condition, both nitrogen and 
guano proved remunerative, phosphates produced losses or no gains, and potash increased the 
yield ; on the other hand, a field in poor mechanical condition was not benefited in the 
above way, and the state of the soil therefore appears to be of great importance, since where 
this was defective the application of artificial manures was of no avail. It is concluded that 
it is possible to grow good crops of plant canes with the use of pen manure only (including 
also organic manures such as green dressings), and where this can he obtained in sufficient 
quantity artificial manures are unnecessary. If, however, pen manure is not available, good 
crops may he obtained with the aid of artificial manures containing nitrogen and potash. 
1 he course to be adopted with phosphate is not yet clear, but, if any is used, an application 
ol basic phosphate in the proportion of I cwt. per acre is recommended. Under the 
conditions existing in the Leeward Islands it is suggested that it would be preferable to 
devote money to the production of pen manure rather than to buying artificial manures, 
though the latter might find a place in the raising of green dressings for manurial 
purposes. 
THE IDENTIFICATION OF WOOD. 
Considering the enormous extent to which the timber trade of the world has grown 
during recent years it seems strange that, up to the present, no scientific method has been 
introduced for identifying the many kinds of wood which come upon the market. Some 
attention has, however, been devoted to the question, anti in a lecture before the Society of 
Arts ( Journ . Soc. Arts , Vol. L. p. 40), Mr. Herbert Stone, one of the Imperial 
Institute expert referees on timber, gave an outline of a method which he proposes to use 
ior distinguishing commercial woods by their anatomical characters. The unsatisfactory 
nature of the present means of identification will be apparent when it is stated that it is quite 
common for a strange piece of wood to be handed round until someone is found who can 
recognise it ; that cases have occurred where a Wood, well known and largely imported, has 
been pronounced by various timber merchants to be something entirely different ; that inferior 
woods are often substituted for others which they superficially resemble, and that in one case 
an inferior wood, selling at a low price, was much increased in value by the very simple 
expedient of changing its name. In addition, very many consignments of excellent timber 
reach this country, but, owing to lack of information regarding the name, origin and properties 
of the wood, il is extremely difficult to dispose of, and finally has often to be included in a 
rummage sale of “ unrated ” timber in order to recover the freight and dock dues, the result 
being of course considerable loss to the sender. Afterwards it has frequently occurred that 
some of these unnamed woods have proved to be very valuable on account of beauty or other 
property, and have been much sought after, but it is almost impossible to procure further 
supplies, as, owing to the fate of the first consignment, no more comes upon the market, 
and, the name and source of the timber being unknown, the sender cannot be communicated 
with. In a few cases such unknown woods have been identified by means of their anatomical 
characters, and the source has in this way been discovered, but this method cannot he generally 
applied at present owing to the limited data at disposal. 
The value of the study of the anatomical structure of the wood, as a means of identi- 
fying and classifying plants, has been demonstrated by Radlkofer, Solereder and other 
botanists, but their work has been confined to the examination of small twigs and stems such 
as usually occur in herbarium specimens. Moreover their attention has been chiefly devoted 
to the primary wood, and as timber consists of secondary wood, often differing considerably 
from the former in structure, their results are of little value for commercial purposes. In 
Germany, however, considerable work on the structure of timber has been done ; the 
European timber-trees have been described in a fairly complete manner by the two Harligs 
and Schwartz ; Mayr has studied the characters of the conifers of North America, while 
Ndrcllinger has described the structure of 1,100 different trees. None of these workers, 
however, has devised anything approaching a scheme of classification, and the artificial keys 
which they have drawn up for purposes of identification are either limited in their application 
or quite unsuitable for practical purposes. The most important English work dealing with 
the structure of wood is Mr. J. S. Gamble’s “ Indian Timbers,” of which a new edition 
describing 1,500 different varieties is about to be issued, but, as the descriptions in this are 
confined exclusively to the native species, they cannot be applied to timbers of other 
countries. 
The points which must be relied upon in a scheme of classification based upon 
anatomical structure may be briefly noticed before indicating the lines upon which Mr. Stone 
proposes to proceed. In nearly all transverse sections of wood the annual rings are the most 
conspicuous feature, hut the width of these is rarely of value, since, owing to various causes, 
it may vary widely even in the same tree. In the oak, for example, the rings will vary 
from one-sixteenth to five-eighths of an inch In width. The broadest ring will, however, 
always show the structure of the wood to the best advantage and should, therefore, be selecled 
for examination. The next point to observe, by means of a lens if necessary, is the presence 
or absence of the true pores — the wood vessels — which, when present, are always most 
numerous in the spring wood, i.e., the innermost side of the ring. The size of the pores also 
shows considerable variation, both in the different rings as well as within the limits of each 
individual ring. In the former case it appears to depend chiefly upon age, and in many 
woods, such as the oak, the average size increases from year to year until the tree reaches its 
prime, when it becomes more or less constant. Taking each individual ring, the pores are 
largest on the inner side, and on passing outwards they always diminish, sometimes only a 
little, as in the maple, but more frequently to vanishing point, as in the oak. Accurate 
measurements of the size of the pores are therefore not of much value as a guide, and the 
method generally adopted is to take a series of well-known woods as standards of comparison. 
It should be mentioned that in many tropical woods, whose growth is almost uninterrupted, 
the ring-boundaries become indistinct or even entirely lost, and the size of the pores 
appears to increase regularly from the pith outwards. If pores arc found in the middle or 
outer part of the ring while the inner portion is free from them, it is quite certain that they 
are resin ducts and that the wood is a coniferous one, probably a pine or spruce. The 
rays, running radially through the wood, are universally present, and, as they vary considerably 
in different species — in width, height, lustre, straightness, etc. — and can be easily observed, 
they are of great value for purposes of identification. The extent and distribution of the 
wood-parenchyma or soft tissue are also important characters, capable of showing wide 
differences, since this tissue may vary from small patches surrounding the wood-vessels to 
prominent circles concentric with the rings. In addition to the transverse, the longitudinal 
sections, both radial and tangential, should also be examined, and will often clear up 
obscurities in the structure as shown by the former, besides enabling a complete general idea 
of the wood to be obtained. 
The key which Mr. Stone proposes to use for identification depends for its first division 
upon the character of the rays, which appear to be the most constant feature in timber. 
Woods having two kinds of rays, as many Cupuliferee , are separated from those which have 
but one ; the laLter are then divided into two classes according as the rays arc separated by 
distances greater or less than the transverse diameter of the largest pores ; further sub- 
divisions depend upon the presence of soft tissue and its distribution, followed by the arrange- 
ment of the pores and concluding with the definiteness of the ring-boundaries. In this 
scheme the most easily recognised characters are used for the first divisions, so that the more 
indefinite ones are left to the end, where there will be fewer species to deal with and other 
aids can be employed. After the woods have been divided into these ultimate groups the 
physical and chemical characteristics may be utilized where necessary for further discrimina- 
tion. In these respects the following points can be usefully observed and recorded : — (1) the 
range of weight per cubic foot ; (2) the hardness (for the practical determination of which 
Mr. Stone has devised a very simple instrument) ; (3) the colour of the solution produced 
by boiling a small quantity of the shavings in water and alcohol ; (4) the reaction with iron 
salts ; (5) the capacity for absorption of water ; (6) the phenomena observed on burning, 
such as the exudation of a coloured resin or the production of a characteristic odour or ash 
(the two Australian paving woods, jarrah and karri, may be distinguished by their yielding 
on burning a black cinder and a white ash respectively) ; (7) . the character of the surface, 
whether dull or lustrous, and the particular elements, rays, pores or soft tissue, which produce 
the effect, and (S) the colour. 
For any such scheme to be of value It is essential that authentic specimens of the 
different woods should lie carefully examined, so that their structure*may be definitely placed 
on record ior future reference. The botanical name of the plant must also be attached to the 
description, since the vernacular names often give rise to considerable confusion, the same 
tree being sometimes known under different names or the same name applied to different 
trees. Mr. Stone intends in the first place to examine all the Colonial timbers, of which he 
has already obtained, through the Colonial Office, promise of authentic specimens from most 
of the colonies. After examination, it is proposed to convert these into several duplicate 
sets, which will be presented to various public institutions for purposes of reference. Such 
work will enable home traders to recognise unfamiliar Colonial timbers, which they may 
meet with, or to obtain supplies of any particular wood, and will also be of great benefit to 
the colonists as well. 
BANANA CULTIVATION IN ASSAM. 
The plantain tree, which yields the fruit known indiscriminately by the names plantain 
and banana, is commonly cultivated throughout Assam, the homestead of the native farmer 
being generally surrounded by clumps of plantain sufficient to supply the wants of the 
household, but only rarely affording a surplus for disposal in the local market, although the 
fruit commands there a ready sale at good prices. In order to encourage cultivation on a 
larger scale, the Agricultural Department of Assam has recently issued a Bulletin ( Vegetable 
Product Scries , No. 3), giving an account of the best varieties of plantain, and of the 
methods of cultivation which generally give successful results with the tree. It appears that 
the varieties grown in the province can be divided into ten classes, of which the following 
short descriptions may be given here. 
7 'ke Athia Group. — The members of this group are the hardiest of all the plantain 
species, and are those usually grown round the native homesteads. The trunks possess a 
dark green colour, without any reddish tinge, and the plant is easily reproduced from seed. 
Monohar Group. — These varieties arc less popular with the natives than those of the 
foregoing class. The trees are smaller than the Alinas, and the sheathes of the fruit arc 
lighter in colour. 
Mdlbhog Group. — This class includes the best varieties of banana grown in Assam. The 
trees are comparatively short, and the whole external surface exhibits a reddish colour. The 
fruit has a perfectly smooth skin, and is of a deep yellow colour, the pulp being white. 
Purd-Kal. — The fruil of this and the following varieties is usually employed in the 
unripe condition as a vegetable. The trees grow tall and straight, and so present quite a 
different appearance from the ordinary plantains, which bend towards the ground. 
Btondtu — These trees closely resemble the more valuable Malbhog group, but the fruit 
lias a green colour, even when quite ripe, and the pulp has a curious earthy flavour. 
The other varieties known in the province are Jahaji, Cheni Champa, Baratmoni, and 
Gorinda Tulsi, all of whicli have been imported from other countries, but do not appear to 
compare favourably with the native produce. 
In cultivating plantain, a widely different procedure is adopted with the Athia varieties 
from that necessary in the case of the other groups, owing to the immunity which the former 
enjoy from the attacks of worms, a feature which enables the native to grow them, as 
already mentioned, close to his farm, on land sodden with nitrogenous refuse. 
I he finer kinds must be grown at a distance from the homestead, and preferably on land 
which has not previously borne any crops, and which is therefore comparatively free from 
worms ; for the same reason it is necessary to change the plantation periodically, usually at 
the end of three years. 
In planting, the young saplings are placed in holes of the proper size, and the roots 
covered over with earth, the positions selected being usually the vacant spaces in betel - 
nut plantations, since the plantain when mature affords the shade required by the betel-nut 
palm . 
Great care has to be exercised in manuring the finer kinds of plantain to avoid manures 
which encourage earthworms, and so ashes, paddy husks, and vegetable refuse are generally 
employed rather than animal matter. The soil in the immediate neighbourhood of the routs 
rapidly becomes exhausted, and must be replaced by fresh mould. In order that the trees 
may get the full benefit of the soil, the ground should be kept dear of weeds, and the roots 
which tend to grow up out of the ground covered again with earth. The trees usually bear 
fruit two years after planting, but the different classes show some variation in this respect, 
and also in the value of the fruit they bear, the Malbhog class realising the highest price, and 
the Athia varieties the least. 
Almost every part of the plantain is utilised by the natives ; the fruits in the unripe 
condition arc used as vegetables, and when ripe are eaten raw or cooked with rice and milk. 
Occasionally the pulp is preserved by being cut into thin slices and dried in the sun, while 
