i8o [July, 1902.] 
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE JOURNAL. 
Vol. VIII. No. 91. 
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT 
OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE. 
* 
THE COAL RESOURCES OF INDIA. 
In a recent lecture delivered before the Indian Section of the Society of Arts, Professor 
W. R, Dunstan spoke of the importance of a cheap supply of coal to the prosperity of a 
country. India possesses a practically inexhaustible supply of coal, and in recent years there 
has been a rapid development of the coalfields. In 1880 the output of coal had just exceeded 
1,000,000 tons, while in igoo the output from Indian collieries exceeded 6,000,000 tons, of 
which the Bengal mines contributed nearly 5,000,000 tons. The import and export trade 
is quite as satisfactory, for while between 18S5 and 1S95 the imports into India varied 
between 600,000 tons and 800,000 tons per annum, in 1900 they had decreased to 127,318 tons. 
In 1892 the exports amounted to 15,620 and in 1900 to 541,445 tons. Perhaps the most 
healthy sign of the industry is the increase in the home consumption, and there is little doubt 
that with the completion of the railways in a few years’ time there will be a rapid develop- 
ment of the fields throughout India and the industries connected therewith. 
The coal measures of the Indian Peninsula are, geologically, of Permio-Triassic age, and 
are known as the Upper and Lower Gondwana Series. Those of the eastern peninsula 
area are either Tertiary or Cretaceous, but except in Assam the Cretaceous beds are generally 
unproductive of coal. The total area of Peninsula coalfields was placed many years back at 
35,000 square miles, and, as the seams are often of extraordinary thickness, it is clear that 
India has a source which will supply all her needs for an indefinite period. 
Provincial coalfields . — BENGAL. — The principal coalfields of this province are those of 
Karharbari (Giridih) Raniganj, Jheria and Karanpura, and in 1900 there were 238 collieries. 
The Ivarharbari field has an area of eight square miles and was estimated by Dr. Saise in 
1880 to contain 136,000,000 tons of coal. The most important seam is the lower seam, which 
has an area of about seven square miles and a thickness varying between 12 and 30 feet. 
The collieries are served by the East Indian Railway Company, which also possesses a part of 
the field. 
The Raniganj- Barakar field is about 130 miles from Calcutta and extends westward 
along the valley of the Damuda river, covering an area in the exposed portion of 500 square 
miles. The amount of coal it contains is estimated at 14,000,000,000 tons. The seams are 
of great thickness. 
The Jheria field is 16 miles to the west of the Raniganj, and is connected with the 
East Indian Railway by branches terminating at Jheria and Katrasgarh. The field has an 
area of about 200 square miles and the amount of coal it contains is estimated at 864,000,000 
tons. 
Two miles west is the Bokaro field, which covers 220 square miles, and is estimated to 
contain 1,500,000,000 tons. Further west along the Damuda valley are the Karanpura fields. 
The north field has an area of 472 square miles and is estimated to contain 8,750,000,000 
tons, while the souLb part contains 75,000,000 tons. Neither the Bokaro nor the Karanpura 
fields have been worked. Many other fields of less importance occur in Bengal, The coal 
of Bengal contains on an average 60 per cent, of fixed carbon and 10 per cent, of ash. The 
soft coals of the Raniganj -Barakar series do not produce a satisfactory coke, but those of 
Giridih and Jheria, when washed and coked in a closed oven, furnish a hard coke containing 
10 to 12 per cent, of ash. 
In the Central Provinces in 1900 there were eight collieries at work, and the output 
amounted to 172,842 tons. The principal fields are the Mohpani and the Warora coalfields. 
The Mohpani field is rather less than 100 miles from Jabulpore and 322 miles from Allahabad. 
The field has been worked for many years. Its area is small and there is a correspondingly 
small output. The Warora field has an area of 420 acres and is estimated to contain 
20,000,000 tons The seams vary in thickness up to 13 feet. Situated in the Wardha valley, 
in the vicinity of the Warora fields, are the coal-bearing strata of the Ghugus and Wun, at 
present unworked. Warora is 120 miles from Nagpur and 500 miles from Bombay by rail. 
In Central India the only field at present worked is that of Umaria, which lies in the 
eastern end of the province at a distance of 34 miles from Katni on the Great Indian Penin- 
sula railway. The area is about 3 square miles, and is estimated to contain 28,000,000 tons 
of coal. Other fields, such as Sohagpur, Korar and Johilla, are of large area and known to 
contain thick seams of valuable coal. 
In the Nizam’s Dominions practically the whole of the coal is obtained from the 
Singareni field, where, in 1900, were five collieries at work, producing 469,291 tons. It is 
situated in the Godavari valley, has an area of about 8 square miles, and there are several 
seams, one of which is over 40 feet in thickness. A considerable trade is done both with 
Bombay and Madras. 
In Rajputana there is one mine which has worked a thick deposit of brown coal during 
the past four years at Palana in the Bikanir region. The output in 1900 was 9,250 tons. 
In Baluchistan there were nine collieries at work in 1900, which work thin seams of 
tertiary coal. At Khost the seams are from 6 inches to 2h feet thick. In the Punjab 
in 1900, two collieries were at work producing 74,083 tons. At the Dundot collieries a 
seam from 2 to 3 feet thick is worked. The coal is probably tertiary and occurs in many 
localities of the Salt range. At the extreme east of the range is situated the Bhaganvvala 
field, which is estimated to contain 1,000,000 tons of coal. In Assam large deposits occur oF 
both tertiary and cretaceous coal. The most important mines are those of the Makuin field 
in the Lakimpur district. The seams here are from 75 to 100 feet in thickness and are 
estimated to contain 18,000,000 tons of coal. The coal contains only a very small 
percentage of ash and is probably the best steam coal that India produces. 
The Cherrapunji field is situated on a ridge of the Ivhasia hills and covers an area of 
something less than a square mile and is estimated to contain about 1,000,000 tons. The 
production of coal in the whole province in 1900 was 216,736 tons. In Burma in 1900 
there was only one colliery at work, known as the Letkokbin mine, and situated on the west 
bank of the Irrawaddy 60 miles from Mandalay. The seams are from 4 to 5 feet thick, and 
the coal is compact and hard. In 1900 the production was 10,228 tons. 
In regard to the quality of Indian coal the lecturer made the statement that, taking into 
account all the defects of Indian coal, it may be said to be '27 to 30 per cent, inferior to 
average British coal of the same type. Where cargoes of the best Indian coal have been 
put on the foreign market they have competed successfully with English and Japanese coal, 
but in some cases cargoes of inferior coal have been exported which has been to the 
detriment of foreign trade. From reports of steamship companies, it appears that Indian 
coal is not generally suitable for use in mail steamers, as it is impossible to obtain a 
satisfactory result in point of speed, but in case of cargo boats, where speed is a matter of less 
importance, it is used to great advantage owing to its small cost compared to English coal. 
For such, as well as for steamers plying in the Indian Ocean, Indian coal is always used 
between Suez and Singapore. Assam coal is reported on the most favourably, and the 
Desherghur of Bengal coals. Until 1897 Welsh coal was chiefly used on Ceylon railways, 
but, owing to the tremendous increase in price, Indian coals were largely used and, though 
they gave much trouble, owing to the amount of ash, a considerable reduction was made in 
working expenses. One of the chief steamship companies states that, from general 
experience of Indian coals, the consumption is 25 per cent, above that of Welsh coal. 
Indian coal could only be used in admixture with other superior coal and was generally used in 
proportion of two-thirds of Welsh coal to one-third of Indian, and the general results have been 
disappointing, Indian coal being far worse in practical value than any with which they had 
had to deal. The coal is generally greatly depreciated by the large amount of dirt that is 
mixed with it, but it has improved in quality and is likely to hold its own in the supply of the 
Eastern market. On the whole the information as to the value of Indian coal for steamship 
and locomotive purposes obtained from the principal consumers is fairly satisfactory and 
encouraging. It is evident, however, that better supervision must be exercised in order to 
secure for these purposes the most suitable coal, and greater care taken to obtain a 
standard quality. 
In 1900, nearly 90,000 people were employed in coal-mining, the average pay for under- 
ground work being about ij rupees a week. Native labour is universally employed, and 
the coal is generally cut by hand. The mines are owned by joint-stock companies, 
private individuals and the State — generally through the railway companies. Indian coal 
at the pit’s mouth is probably lower in price than in any other country, often reaching 
two rupees a ton. The local wholesale selling price of Bengal coal was, in 1900, 4s. 5d. 
a ton, as against 4s. 2d. in the previous year. The wholesale price for imported coal in 
Calcutta averaged 32s. id. per ton. The bulk of the labour consists of Bauris and 
Sonthals. The Karharbari coalfield is mainly worked by three companies — the Raniganj 
Coal Association, the Bengal Coal Company, and the East Indian Railway. The system 
of working is similar all over Bengal. The working hours are from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., 
and sometimes later when extra work is required. Only four days a week real work is 
done, and the consequence is that the output per colliery is much less than in England. 
All the miner’s family work with him. The coal is mined on the bord and pillar system. 
The larger proportion of the labourers cultivate during the rainy season, and work at the 
collieries only in the cold season from about October to June. Coal-cutting is paid by 
contract at so much a tram or bucket, and the price generally varies from 7 to 8 annas 
per ton for large, and i-J to l|- annas per ton for small coal. The coal is hand-picked 
into four kinds. Steam coal is larger than 2-inch cube, rubble larger than £-inch cube, 
smithy down to J-inch cube, and all smaller than that is called slack or dust. At 
Warora, Central Provinces, where 100,000 tons per annum are wound by direct-acting 
engines out of two shafts, 200 feet deep, the system nearly approaches the English. No 
women work underground, and work is constant from Monday morning to Saturday 
night. The work is divided into three shifts of eight hours each. The seams which are 
from 8 to 12 feet thick are worked by driving galleries or bords and headways, 12 feet 
wide, 6 feet in height, leaving the roof coal and pillars 40 feet square. The colliery 
consists of six pits varying in depth from 100 to 250 feet. All the pits are supplied 
with sidings, and connected with the Wardha State Railway by a branch line. 
In regard to railway transport, the Committee of the Indian Mining Association 
consider that the transport and distribution facilities at present provided are distinctly 
unsatisfactory, the chief defects being roughly classified under three heads : — {1) A serious 
and constant deficiency of rolling stock on the principal coal-carrying railway— the E. I. ; 
(2) heavy railway freight charges ; and (3) inadequate and inefficient loading facilities in 
Calcutta — the port of shipment. During the last six years the coal carried by the 
E. I. railway has nearly doubled, being 2,926,330 tons in 1895, and 2,874,697 for the 
first half of 1901, while the number of wagons has increased from 9,468 to 14,759, 
and the carrying capacity has been more effective by something like 50 per cent., which 
appears to be fully adequate for the average trade. The rates also appear to be lower 
than those of most other countries, and only one-third the English rates. The last point 
dealt with was the utilization of the fine coal. Several varieties of Indian coal are liable 
to disintegrate, and much that is now wasted- might be used in the manufacture of 
patent fuel or water gas, and it is to be noted that the bituminous character of much of 
the Indian coal would seem to render it particularly suitable for the production of 
water gas. In concluding, the lecturer drew attention to the importance of railway 
communication being opened up with the undeveloped coalfields of Western Bengal, the 
Central Provinces, and Central India, and to the great advantage it would be to Madras 
and Southern India where coal is scarce or non-existent, if communications were provided 
between this region and the coalfields of Western Bengal, and the Central Provinces. 
[This lecture has been issued as an official publication by the India Office, and may 
now be purchased at the Indian Section, Imperial Institute, or of Mr. Edward Arnold, 
37, Bedford-street, Strand, W.C. [Price, is.)] 
“SAKE’ BREWING IN JAPAN. 
An interesting account of the brewing and composition of “saki,” the national drink 
of Japan, appears in the United States Consular Reports for March, 1902, of which the 
following is a short resume : — 
The manufacture of “ saki ” includes two distinct processes : the production of “ koji,” 
which is employed in much the same way as malt in beer brewing, and the combination of 
the “ koji” with steamed rice and water under conditions favourable to induce fermentation. 
In the manufacture of “koji,” rice, husked but not cleaned, is pounded in a wooden 
mortar by a heavy wooden hammer which is alternately raised and allowed to fall upon the 
rice. The pounded mass is separated into three portions, the whole grains, the broken 
grains, and the bran ; the former, which is used for the best “ koji,” after being thoroughly 
washed and allowed to soak, is steamed, thus causing the starch of the rice to become 
gelatinised. The mass, now called “ mi,” is spread on mats to cool and then mixed with a 
yellowish powder called “ tane,” which consists of the spores of a fungus. The mixture is 
allowed to remain for thirty-six hours at a temperature of 25°C. and is then collected into 
heaps and left from four to five hours, during which time the temperature rises considerably. 
The mass is now spread on trays to cool and then worked with the hands. 
The preparation of the “ koji ” thus briefly described is often undertaken in independent 
factories. 
The chemical analysis of the “ koji” shows that most of the starch contained in Lhe rice 
is converted into dextrose. 
Certain proportions of steamed rice, “ koji ” and water are now mixed to a smooth and 
even consistency and put into a large vat in which the heating of the mash is conducted ; for 
this purpose a wooden cask containing boiling water is suspended in the liquid and kept 
moving so as to ensure an even distribution of heat. After half-a-day this cask is taken out 
and replaced by another; in this way as many as ten or even more of these heaters are 
employed. A frothy fermentation is induced by the increased temperature and is permitted 
to continue for seven days, after which time the liquid is transferred to shallow pans and 
allowed to cool. 
The product at this stage of the manufacture is called “ motoh.” 
Equal quantities of “motoh,” steamed rice, and water, with one-fourth of “koji,” are 
mixed and stirred at intervals during two to three days. Steamed rice, “ koji,” and water in 
certain proportions — the quantity of the latter depending on the alcoholic strength required — - 
are now added and fermentation allowed to proceed until the froth subsides. After the lapse 
of a few days the fermented liquor is filtered under pressure through hempen bags and put 
into casks until the matter in suspension has subsided. 
The dear “ saki ” is difficult to preserve and, for this reason, has to be heated to 49°-54°C. 
before it is stored in sealed vats. 
