212 ALDER. 
waved, serrated, and dozony at the branching of the veins be- 
neath. 
There are few means of better employing swampy 
and morassy grounds than by planting them with al- 
ders; for although the growth of these trees is not ra- 
pid, the uses to which they are applicable are &uch as 
amply to repay the loss of time requisite before they 
come to perfection. 
The wood of the alder, which is in great demand for 
machinery, is frequently wrought into cogs for mill- 
wheels, and is peculiarly adapted for all kinds of work 
which are to be constantly kept in water. It is conse- 
quently used for pumps, sluices, pipes, drains, and con- 
duits of different description, and for the foundation of 
buildings situated in swamps. The water pipes which 
are laid under the streets of many of our large towns 
are made of alder ; and, for its utility in the formation 
of sluices, it is much cultivated in Holland. It is com- 
monly used for bobbins; and women's shoe-heels, 
ploughmen's clogs, and numerous articles of turnery 
ware, are formed of it. This wood serves also for many 
domestic and rural uses, for spinning-wheels, troughs, 
the handles of tools, ladders, cart-wheels ; and, as cop- 
pice wood, it is planted to be cut down every ninth or 
tenth year, for poles. The roots and knots furnish a 
beautifully veined wood, nearly of the colour of maho- 
gany ; and well adapted for cabinet work and furniture. 
The bark may be advantageously used in the opera- 
tions of tanning and leather-dressing; and by fishermen, 
for staining their nets. This, and the young twigs, are 
sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield different 
shades of yellow and red. The Laplanders chew the 
bark of the alder, and dye their leather garments red 
with the saliva thus produced. With the addition of 
copperas, it yields a black dye, which the d} r ers of cot- 
ton use to considerable extent ; and, for this purpose, it 
is purchaseable in some countries, at the rate of seven, 
pence or eight pence per stone. 
In the highlands of Scotland, we are informed that 
