Single Relations Between Thoughts . 
45 
that his exposition is incomplete without the introduction of 
his last statement. That is, he perceives, merely, that there 
is some sort of relation. 1 Thought-structure is of the usual 
type. What has preceded is reinstated. The reinstatement 
and the general relation unite as adverbial adjunct in the last 
sentence. The relation, as usual, is reverse. 
CLASS X. FIGURATIVE RELATIONS. 
This topic is suggested by the use of “ now ” in the preceding 
example. “ Now ” strictly means “ at the present time. ” But 
in common usage it has come to mean “ at the same time as some¬ 
thing else ” or “ immediately after something else.” That is, it 
names a time relation. In the last example it evidently passes 
from time relation to general relation. 
Time relations are also notoriously prone to be misunderstood 
as even causal, this fact giving rise to the dictum “Post hoc; 
ergo propter hoc. ” In other words, the passage from time re¬ 
lations to other relations is so easy, that it is often made unin¬ 
tentionally. The frequent figurative use is, accordingly, not 
surprising. 
Space relations also have their figurative employment; e. g. 
“ thereupon ” passes from space to time. Also “ further ” 
passes from expression of increase in distance to that of augmen¬ 
tation in thought-total. Such change in value concerns rather 
lexicology than thought-structure, and does not seem to require 
investigation. For, though the meanings of connectives change, 
their function appears to remain the same. That is, they are 
found to combine, in both literal and figurative meanings, a 
reinstatement and a reverse relation, as adverbial adjunct in the 
last sentence. 
1 There is a somewhat analogous tendency to use the forms of exact and 
important relation even when the question may fairly rise whether any re¬ 
lation is conceived beyond that of mere co-presence in the speaker’s mind. 
The abuse of “ thus ” and “therefore,” of “hence ” and “consequently ” 
offers a notorious illustration. Similarly “ once upon a time ” goes through 
the motions of naming a time. “ A certain man ” has the air of selecting 
a particular person. Usage of this sort, the employment of definite names 
for indefinite ideas or no ideas, I have elsewhere classed as counterfeit 
symbolization. 
