158 
R.E. Johnstone, P. Jepson, S.H.M. Butchart, J.C. Lowen, D. Prawiradilaga 
2. Mangal. Small stands of mangal occur in many 
of the embayments. They consist mainly of 
Rhizophora, Sonneratia and Bruguiera in the 
seaward zone and Avicetmia, Lumnitzera and 
Excoecaria to landward (Figure 3). 
3. Cultivated areas. These include rice fields, 
coconut, cashew and banana plantations, 
village gardens with kapok, maize and other 
vegetables and in the highlands coffee 
plantations (Figure 4). 
4. Semi-evergreen rainforest, moist deciduous 
monsoon forest and gallery forest. This forest 
is usually tall (canopy >30 m), is complex in 
structure and no doubt originally extended 
over much of the volcanic-alluvial plain. Trees 
include. Ficus, Terminalia, Alstonia, Celtis, 
Serianthes, Diospyros, Eugenia, Crewia, Schefflera, 
Myrislica, Albizzia, Mimusops, Garuga, Nauclea, 
Erythrina and Tamarindus. Vines, rattans and 
palms are abundant and the understorey 
consists mostly of small trees, shrubs, bamboo, 
herbs, ferns and in some places Lantana (Figure 
5). 
Most of the lowland rainforest has been disturbed 
and cleared by shifting cultivation then allowed 
to regenerate. Historically it has also been 
locally devastated by volcanic eruptions and 
lava flows. 
SU MBAWA 
Figure 2 Map of Sumbawa, Moyo and Sangeang Islands showing main study sites. 
