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in die United States in I860 and claimed by die Hawaiian Kingdom 
in 1862, became past of die Territory of Hawaii, after Hawaii’s 
annexation to die United States. ** 
The rival claims to Palmyra were by no means an isolated phe¬ 
nomenon for ruthless competition characterized the mid-Pacific 
guano trade almost from its inception. Alfred G. Benson left die 
American Guano Company early in 1838 and in the fell of that 
year helped organize rise United States Guano Company, of which 
he subsequently became president. His new company hied a claim 
with die United States Sate Department for Howland Island, and 
after a long investigation the State Department not only validated 
the claim but issued an order forbidding the older company to 
work die Howland guano deposits. In the ensuing struggle between 
die two companies, an abortive effort was made to eject die Ameri¬ 
can Guano Company from Baker and Jarvis as well, on die ground 
that it had exported guano to other than United States pens in 
violation of the Act of Congress of August 18,1836. *• 
Other factors contributed to depress the operation. The contin¬ 
uing hardship of digging guano in surroundings of numbing 
isolation made Wilder extremely irritable, particularly when Dr. 
Judd refused to let his daughter Elizabeth (who had married Wilder 
in 1837) join her husband on the guano grounds, and when in a 
stubborn reaffirmation of temperance principles he insisted that no 
liquor be brought there v Wilder complained bitterly of both prohi¬ 
bitions.* 4 
More effectively, the coming of the United States Gvil War and 
the resultant blockade of the Southern pom restricted the guano 
market. In die summer of 1361 Dr. Judd instructed Wilder to cur¬ 
tail the guano digging. He added that already he was looking for 
another business. "Don’t think of leaving the Sandwich Islands,” 
he added in a tone of unmistakable urgency. ”1 want all my children 
with their families settled around m e.” 8 * 
Dr. Judd retained his connection with die guano venture for 
several years more, but, in die meantime, he turned to other pur¬ 
suits. After the Gvil War, Chilean nitrates and phosphates gradually 
replaced guano as a commercial fertilizer, and one by one the mid- 
Pacific guano islands were abandoned. It was not until 1936 that 
die United States repossessed Baker, Howland, and Jarvis as weather 
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stations and emergency landing fields. By that time litde remained, 
save parts of a wharf and roofless coral walls on Baker, to recall 
the existence of a once prosperous commercial venture. 1 * 
As the guano trade waned. Dr. Judd turned to what was to be¬ 
come Hawaii’s leading industry—sugar. Here, indeed, was a splendid 
opportunity to recoup previous losses and achieve financial ease. 
In the 1840s sugar was only one of many Islands products, 
widely grown in an experimental and somewhat haphazard manner. 
It remained so until the California gold rush of 1849-1830 and 
the resultant sharp increase in population on the United States west 
coast created an unexpected and huge new market. Bor a year or 
so Hawaiian sugar enjoyed a boom, followed by a depression in 
1851-1852. Throughout the rest of the 1850s the sugar industry 
grew slowly, hampered by a shortage of both labor and capital 
for speculative investment. But the United States Gvil War, with 
its blockade of Confederate sugar, once again crested a boost, 
Prices rose, and Hawaii’s sugar exports increased sevenfold between 
1861 and 1866. By the end of the Gvil War, sugar had replaced 
whaling as the main support of Hawaii’s economy. 0 
As early as 1840, while Kill k the mission. Dr. Judd had acted 
as Governor Kekuanaoa’s agent for a sugar plant ai n near Hono¬ 
lulu, and in 1845 as-minister of the interior he*Btd give® due 
weight to sugar in framing recommendations for the future develop¬ 
ment of Hawaii’s agriculture. Eight years later, at its annual meeting, 
the Royal Hawaiian Agricultural Society took notice of an excellent 
sample of sugar which he had produced at Kualoa.* His p r ev i o us 
experience with sugar, the all too obvious island-wide prospects fee 
the industry, and diminishing returns from guano lid him to under¬ 
take sugar production on a large scale. His decision is symbolic 
of a broad change taking place in the Islands—the amgfgmo e m 
the 1850s and thereafter of resident planters of misskmsry origin, 
who, in time, along with their descendants, came to dominate a 
large share of Hawaii’s economic life. Hie entrance into agriculture 
and trade of former missionaries and thek sow put an end to 
much of die hostility which had existed between the rmasfon and 
the commercial interest in the previous generatse®, and ultimately 
created an atmosphere of harmony k contrast to the ugly strife of 
bygone days. 88 
