1878.1 
AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST. 
177 
until the surface becomes covered with semi-fluid 
cement. While oue batch is being spread, another 
should be mixing. If the walls need cementing to 
keep out water that may penetrate through them, 
this should be done with the mixed cement and 
sand, without the gravel or stone. As soon as the 
concrete is hard enough 
v3Hsm aaasEB 
Fig. 4.— SECTION. 
to walk upon, which 
will be in 21 hours, 
the finishing coat may 
be laid on. This con¬ 
sists of the cement 
and sand, mixed as 
already described. This is spread with the back of 
the shovel one inch thick, and is finished with a 
smoothing-board having a smoothly dressed and 
well oiled surface, made in the shape shown at 
figure 3. The piece of board should be about 3 
feet long and a foot wide, and the handle so in¬ 
clined as to be convenient to work with. When 
finished, the floor will appear in section as at fig. 4. 
Improving Wet Meadows. 
One of the most difficult of farm improvements 
is the reclaiming of swampy ground and over¬ 
flowed meadows. At least it seems difficult, and 
accurate instrument. With this are needed a 
“ Jacob staff ” to set the level upon, and a sighting- 
rod, marked with spaces of feet and tenths of a foot 
it is really the least satisfactory job a farmer can 
undertake, because its success depends upon more 
than usually skillful management rather than mere 
labor. To get rid of the water, drains are needed, 
and these must necessarily be made in such a way 
Fig. 2.— POCKET LEVEL. 
as to lead the water, either to the lowest portion of 
the land, or from it altogether, into the nearest 
water-course. These wet lands are generally so 
nearly level, that it is often impossible for any but 
a practised surveyor, with his instruments, 
to decide which way the water will run in 
the drains, and it sometimes needs the sur¬ 
veyor’s positive assertion to convince owners 
|3 of such lands either that the water can be 
carried off at all, or as to the direction in 
which the slope actually exists. After much 
experience with swamps and wet lands, it 
may be stated that, as a general rule, there 
are very few indeed that do not admit of 
some form of drainage by which they may 
be brought under profitable cultivation as 
meadows. The possibility of this may be 
decided at little cost by the employment of 
a competent engineer who has made a special 
business of drainage and irrigation, and who 
thoroughly understands the work, or by the 
use of some simple and easy mode of leveling 
by the owner himself. Several methods of 
y finding the level are described in “ Stewart’s 
g Irrigation for the Farm, etc.,” from which 
we reproduce the foregoing illustrations of 
leveling instruments. At figure 1 is shown a field- 
level, made by S. & W. E. Gurney, which is a very 
(or inches) above and below a standard mark, which 
represents the hight of the instrument above the 
ground when properly set and adjusted. At figure 
2 is a pocket-level, which can be used where it is 
impossible to plant a staff, and if used with skill, 
this is about as effective as a more expensive in¬ 
strument. With this a sighting-rod marked is used 
at the exact hight of the eye of the operator from 
the ground, and with feet and inches above and be¬ 
low this, and from it either 
way, as shown at figure 3. 
This instrument contains a 
spirit-level, the bubble of 
which is reflected from a 
sloping mirror within it, and 
is made to appear as if on 
the object-glass at the end, 
where it is crossed by a fine 
wire. When the wire cuts 
the bubble in the centre, the 
sight is on a perfect level w 
and the point on the rod can 
be marked by the person 
who holds it. When a piece 
of wet land is to be survey¬ 
ed for draining, it is neces¬ 
sary for the surveyor to 
stand with his level at the 
supposed outlet or lowest 
point of the ground, and to 
take a sight across the space to the other side, or 
in different directions. He will thus find with ease 
the amount of inclination of the ground, which 
will generally be greater than has been suspected. 
For instance, in one case where the owner of a piece 
of wet ground insisted that a certain 
point was the lowest part of it, this was 
found on examination to be 5 feet higher 
than the opposite point, and the drains, 
when made, flowed with a good current 
in the opposite direction from that ex 
pected by the owner. When the lowest 
point has been found, the outlet for the water 
should be made there, and if there is no way of 
escape for it beyond that, a pond may be made there 
to collect it. The drains should be dug from this 
point upwards, and by observing the flow of watdb 
any ordinary laborer will be able to carry them 
Fig 5. —FORM OF DRAINS 
along on a proper grade. This should be such as 
will permit a free flow of the water. At figure 4 is 
given a diagram of the manner in which the drains 
may be laid out from the outlet—in this case a 
brook—to the highest point of the swamp. The 
Fig. 6.—TUSSOCKS IN MEADOWS, 
courses shown are the drains from the sources of 
the water to the brook, and may be made in the 
most direct line. The drains in all these cases 
should be open ones, as there would be an almost 
certain stoppage of tiles in soft mucky ground 
where there is no more fall than 5 or 0 inches in 100 
feet. The form of the drain is shown in figure 5. 
To facilitate the use of the ground for a meadow, 
the ditches should be wide and shallow; 6 feet 
wide, and 1 foot deep at the center, and gradually 
sloping to it, is the form found most convenient. 
As soon as made, these ditches should be sown 
with seed, and grassed over. When the surface of 
the ground is overgrown with tussocks of coarse 
grass, it will be the cheapest and easiest plan to cut 
these off by hand with a broad, heavy, sharp hoe, 
before plowing the ground. Generally they are in 
the shape shown at figure 6, and are easily cut off 
with a heavy hoe. These may be burned, when dry, 
and the ashes scattered over the ground. If the 
ground should become dry enough to plow, that 
would be the best method of leveling the surface. 
The furrows should be begun between the lines of 
ditches, so as to throw up back furrows, or ridges, 
in the highest parts of the ground, and leave the 
open'furrows where the ditches will be made. In 
most cases, by good management, and a clear idea 
of what is to be done all through the job, nearly all 
the leveling may be done by the plow, harrow, and 
scraper, and only needs to be finished off by hand. 
A Simple Foot-Bridge. 
On a recent visit to a farm through which a small 
brook ran, there was much trouble in.getting across 
the stream. To prevent such a difficulty is a very 
simple matter, but any provision for this, is one of 
the rarest things to find, even upon well appointed 
farms. A permanent bridge is not desirable in such 
cases, because of the cost of a structure that would 
resist the frequent freshets, and the ease with 
A SIMPLE FOOT-BRIDGE. 
which a light bridge is carried away. The better 
plan is to provide a plank. 2 inches thick, a foot or 
more wide, and of whatever length may be required, 
and attach it by one end by a chain or rope, 
as shown in the illustration, to a stake driven firm¬ 
ly into the bank. The other end is left loose. 
When a freshet occurs the plank is only displaced 
by the water, but not carried away, and can be readi¬ 
ly restored to position when the water subsides. 
How to Raise Ducks. 
Most farmers have a prejudice against water- 
fowl, especially ducks. They tolerate geese better 
than ducks, because they will forage for them¬ 
selves, and live wholly on grass through the sum¬ 
mer, after the goslings are started. Ducks will not 
bear neglect so we’ll; they are more prone to wander 
and get lost or devoured"in swamps or brooks. They 
have a foolish way of dropping their eggs in water, 
and of following a brook, or river, into neighboring 
farms ; unless they have suitable quarters, and re¬ 
ceive regular attention, it is a good deal of trouble 
to look after them. The half-starved duck dis¬ 
poses >f a good deal of corn at a single feed, re¬ 
membering the past, and anticipating the future. 
The slipshod farmer is prejudiced against the bird, 
and will have none of him. But the duck has so 
many good qualities, matures so early, and fur¬ 
nishes so rare a repast, that the owner of a country 
home, with cultivated tastes, can hardly afford to 
do without a duck-yard. The flesh, in our esteem, 
is the greatest delicacy raised upon the farm, and 
if they were much more troublesome than we have 
ever found them, we should not hesitate to keep 
them. The fact is, a large part of the trouble is 
owing to sheer neglect, and the reputation of the 
bird as a gross feeder is owing to irregular supplies 
