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C. E. Moss. 
riparian vegetation, freshwater vegetation, saltwater vegetation, 
etc. Several of these groups of plant-communities are further 
subdivided ; for example, the evergreen forests are subdivided into 
littoral and other forests, and the littoral forests themselves into 
mangrove jungles and tidal jungles. 
Two years later, Kurz (1877) described the forests of British 
Burma in a masterly way which has elicited the commendation of 
Drude (1889 : 27). In none of his works did Kurz use the special 
terms formation and association, though he held the concepts clearly. 
His forests were separated mainly by habitat. Thus he distinguished 
(1) littoral forests, (2) swamp forests, (3) tropical forests, (4) hill 
forests, (5) open forests, (6) dry forests, (7) mixed forests, (8) dune 
forests, and adds, as an appendix, (9) bamboo jungles and savannahs, 
and (10) deserted clearings. These units are in some cases sub¬ 
divided. Thus, the hill forests he subdivided into (a) deciduous 
forests and (b) coniferous forests; and these he further subdivided. 
Thus, the coniferous forests provide pure associations (though Kurz 
does not use the term) of Pinus Kasya and of P. Merkitsii. 
Although Kurz avoided the use of special terms in the description 
of his vegetation units, it is impossible to deny that he had clear 
concepts not only of formations and associations, but that he also 
understood, in some measure, the relations of these vegetation units 
to each other. 
In the interesting account of the vegetation of northern France 
by the abbe Masclef (1888), the concepts of the formation and its 
associations may also be found. This account is like those by Kurz 
in that the terms formation and association are not used; but 
Masclef evidently found some terms necessary, or at least desirable. 
He accordingly termed his vegetation units “ zones ” and “ zones 
secondaires ” ; and these, in a general way, correspond to formations 
and associations. Thus, Masclef, described a “ zone marine,” a 
“zone des vases,” a “zone des falaises,” a “zone des eaux sumatres,” 
and a “ zone des dunes.” Masclef had a follower in de Lamarliere 
(1894), who, in a short account of the maritime vegetation of de 
Quineville (Manche) stated (p. 137):—“On y retrouve les memes 
zones etablies par M. Masclef et si bien etudiees par lui, et elles son 
caracterisees par les memes espfeces communes.” 
To Drude (1889) modern plant geographers are greatly indebted 
for a clear (and perhaps the earliest) formulation of the concepts of 
the formation and the association, as well as the application of these 
general ideas to the vegetation of definite districts. He expressed 
