166 
JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE AND COTTAGE GARDENER. 
[ March 3, 1392. 
heads. It comes near to E,. iaciaiata, or what is known in gardens as 
R. diversifolia, but the leaves are ovate or oblong, and not cut or varied 
in form like that species. The plant attains the height of 3 to 5 feet, 
though in a wild state it is found to be dwarfer, occasionally not 
exceeding 2 feet in height. The flower heads are large, the ray florets 
often 2^ inches long, and bright yellow, the high cone-shaped disk 
being of a brovnish tint. 
R. californica is found growing in moist ground on the Sierra 
Nevada, California, and according to Gray it was there first collected 
by Bridges. ___ 
DEEPENING SOILS. 
Planto growing in shallow soils of ten suffer during long periods 
of drought. They are also sometimes injured and fail to do satis¬ 
factorily through their roots penetrating the subsoil, and thus 
coming in contact with injurious substances. There can be no 
question that deep fertile soi's which are well cultivated are 
capable of yielding a heavier crop of superior produce than can 
possibly be obtained from soils not one-third of their depth. It is 
almost impossible to estimate the large supplies of plant food 
locked up in the soil in a dormant state that might be rendered 
available for them if exposed to the atmosphere. 
In commencing this important work considerable care and 
judgment are needed, or instead of good results the opposite may 
follow. I have no faith in trenching land on wholesale principles, 
as the means by which a greater root run for plants can be 
obtained. Certainly less has been heard of trenching during the 
past few years, and I am not sorry, because the brilliant results 
that were to be achieved did not follow, but in many cases the 
land was ruined for several seasons. I do not say that the teach¬ 
ing of those who advocated trenching was wrong, the fault may 
have been with those who seized upon the idea and spent valuable 
time and labour in turning up land to render it practically unwork¬ 
able. If time had been taken to think before acting different 
methods would have been adopted and superior results obtained. 
To deepen some soils, and to reap the advantages that accrue by 
this labour, is not the work of a solitary season, but is accomplished 
only by a gradual process, extending perhaps over years. 
The nature of the soil and subsoil to be operated upon must 
be duly considered before commencing, because some soils may be 
deepened by one-half the labour and risk that follow the deepening 
of others. For our purpose soils may be divided into three classes 
—heavy, intermediate, and light, or in other words clays, loams, 
and sands. These might be sub-divided into several sections, for 
soils vary widely. Light soils are, as a rule, comparatively easy 
to work and deepen, but they rarely yield the same good return 
for the labour expended upon them, nevertheless they can be 
improved and made to yield profitable crops of good produce. 
The time of year to commence this deepening process also 
varies to some extent with the nature of the soil. Some soils by 
the aid of a few spring frosts, a week’s sunshine, and drying winds 
are in a capital condition for almost any crop. This, however, is 
not the case with those of a stiff retentive nature. Early autumn 
and winter are the best times to dig soils that are adhesive. The 
sooner in autumn they can be turned while they are moderately dry 
the better, so that they will be fully exposed to the disintegrating 
influences of the atmosphere throughout the winter. Loams and 
sandy loams may be improved by deepening at once, or whenever 
the weather is favourable, especially where it is not necessary to 
crop them for the next month or two. I do not favour the 
deepening of stiff soils during the spring months, for they are apt 
to bake, and no amount of working or artificial methods of break¬ 
ing them up can reduce the soil to the fine powdery condition that 
is brought about by the action of frost. 
To deepen stiff soils not more than 1 inch should annually be 
brought to the surface, and this must be turned roughly so as to 
expose as large a surface to the atmosphere as possible. Not only 
does the atmosphere act mechanically, but chemically ; the carbonic 
acid and the oxygen of the air, assisted by rain, wear down and 
break up substances in the soil, rendering insoluble matters soluble, 
increasing the fertility of the land, and thus rendering available for 
the next crop plant food that would otherwise have remained in a 
dormant condition. This is not the only advantage of thorough ex¬ 
posure during winter. It is given opportunities of absorbing 
ammonia from the air. Not only do I advise bringing to the 
surface 1 inch of fresh soil, but thoroughly breaking up the subsoil 
some inches in depth If the land is well drained this results in an 
increase in the temperature, a free circulation of water and air ; 
where the water passes air will follow, and thus carry out its 
fertilising and disintegrating work ; the subsoil, therefore, being 
in a better condition for the roots of the plants to enter, and is in a 
sweet condition w'hen brought to the surface the following season. 
I know a garden which fifteen years ago had only 6 inches of 
workable soil on the surface and now it is 18 inches in depth, and 
this has been brought about by digging deeper annually and bring¬ 
ing up a little of the lower soil each time. If this land had been 
trenched, being stiff clay, it would have been ruined for years. 
The character of the soil, by careful autumn and winter cultivation, 
has been greatly changel ; being once stiff and difficult to work, is 
now comparatively easy. Time wonderfully improves the character 
of these soils, and manure when applied should be used in a 
lightly fermented condition only. It may be dug in at any time 
when turning the land, for there is no fear of the loss that would 
take place on light soils. The decomposition of the manure in the 
soil is an advantage and assists in keeping the soil open and porous. 
With loams and sandy loams if turned up early and are not to 
be used for the sowing of small seeds, from 2 to 4 inches of the 
lower soil may be brought to the surface without injury. Before 
carrying out this work it should be decided what crop is to be 
grown upon the land, and the depth of material brought up should 
depend upon the depth of the drills that can be drawn for the 
various seeds or crops of plants to be grown. The object is to start 
the roots in the soil we know to be fertile, trusting to rain to carry 
down any fertilising matter to the roots that has been rendered 
active by exposure. The surface soil being in excellent condition 
by the end of the season by constant stirring with the hoe during 
the season of growth. 
Sandy soils need little exposure to the atmosphere, for they are 
generally in a fine state, and easily worked at almost any time. The 
best method of improving these soils is to liberally enrich the lower 
soil brought to the surface. lu gardens, by saving the refuse from 
the houses and potting shed, mixing them with vegetable refuse to 
increase the organic matter of the soil, great changes can be brought 
about in a few years and the soil deepened considerably, and the 
absorbing power is also improved. This must be one of the first 
objects of those who have soils of this nature to contend with. 
I have found heavy dressings of clay spread upon the surface 
during autumn and winter, after digging, improve the land, and 
prove of greater advantage to the crop than heavy dressings of 
manure. It is an excellent plan, as soon as a crop has been cleared 
from the land, to sow the seed of some quick deep-rooting plant 
such as white Mustard, so that it will grow and cover the soil 
quickly. These, when dug in deeply, slowly decompose, and 
furnish plant food for the next crop. The land does not lose by 
this method, but the reverse, it gains, for not only is what is taken 
from the soil by the plant returned, but also that which it has 
received from the atmosphere. As I alluded to manures for heavy 
lands I may also refer to them for light soils, the application 
of the two being totally dissimilar. For light lands the manure 
should have been carefully prepared, and then supplied in a highly 
fermented condition, not at digging time, but just before the crop 
is placed in the soil. By this system there is less loss of the 
valuable ingredients of the manure than by any other method. If 
applied, and subjected to autumn, winter, and spriiig rains, the 
whole, or nearly the whole, of its manurial properties would be 
carried through the soil. Light soils possess little or no power of 
holding or fixing the fertilising ingredients of manure, allowing 
them to be washed out or escape in the form of gases. Hence the 
importance of improving the absorbing and retaining power of 
these soils. 
When soils have been deepened sufficiently to allow of trench¬ 
ing we strongly advise attention to this important work. If the 
ground is trenched periodically the lower spit may with safety be 
brought to the surface in autumn, when all trenching should ho 
performed if practicable. I hesitate, however, to bring up the 
whole of the lower spit if it had laid below over four years. 
Even at that time if the surface is dry after it has been well 
pulverised, which it sometimes is during February, it is turned 
again with a fork so as to expose the lower part of the soil or any 
lumps that have not been thoroughly reduced.—W. Bardney. 
RTCHARDIAS. 
The method of cultivation to he adopted with the above 
chiefly depends on whether they are grown for market or for 
general use in a private garden. I will give my experience as 
regards the second case. Tnere is no doubt a difference of 
opinion respecting the planting out of these during the summer 
months or letting them remain in the same pots for years. I 
am an advocate for dividing and planting each year after flowering. 
Towards the middle of April trenches are made 3 feet deep and 
2 feet wide, a layer of manure is placed in the bottom and forked 
ready for planting out the roots in May. Care should be taken to 
arrange and divide in proportion to the size of pot the plants are 
I to be placed in when lifted again in the autumn, the largest being 
