May 7, 1891. ] 
JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE AND COTTAGE GARDENER. 
863 
Willows in many parts of England by the Willow beetle, Phratora 
vitellinae, occurring almost by millions amongst some plantations. 
The trees receive a double attack from this foe ; the hybernating 
beetles lay eggs in spring, the larva; of which feed greedily upon 
the leaves in May, and then at the time the foliage is recovering 
somewhat the beetles emerge and assail the leaves during July or 
August.— Entomologist. 
HARDY FRUIT. 
[A prize essay read at a meeting of tlie Cardiff Gardeners’ Mutual Improvement 
Society.] 
The subject of this paper being “ Hardy Fruit,” it naturally followed 
that the first question to be decided was what fruits should be regarded 
as hardy. Many consider wall fruits hardy, but, inasmuch as they 
require protection, especially the Peach, Apricot, Fig, and Vine, I am 
constrained to think all such should be omitted, more especially in the 
present instance, when we think of the number of fruits which, while 
being strictly hardy, are at the same time of sufficient importance as to 
be enough for a paper of much greater length than this. Therefore I 
have decided to omit wall fruit from consideration, also Nuts, and to 
commence with the Apple, following with the Pear, Plum, Cherry, 
Currants, Gooseberries, Raspberries, and concluding with the Strawberry ; 
briefly giving their origin, but devoting the most space to their culti- 
vatioiL I have endeavoured to be as practical as my experience will 
allow. I have grafted and grown all the Apples and Pears mentioned, 
with the exception of a few varieties, also the Plums and Cherries, struck 
the cuttings of the Currants and Gooseberries, and grown them and the 
Raspberries on to fruit, also the Strawberries. 
The Apple. 
The Apple is native of P>ritain, and found growing wild in the form 
of the Crab, and from which all the cultivated varieties of this grand 
fruit have been produced, some by careful hybridising, but by far the 
largest portion by the merest chance. This being so, the question might 
reasonably be asked. Why not grow our Apples right away from seed, 
without the intervention of the mechanical and tedious process of 
grafting? I would reply. Because out of every hundred seeds sown it is 
exceedingly probable that not more than one or two would bo found 
equal to the parent, and none superior. The element of chance in fruit 
culture finds no favour with experienced pomologists, whether in the 
trade or out of it. It does not pay, and we owe many of our fine varieties 
of Apples to the enthusiasm of amateurs. 
It is th6 established custom now to perpetuate varieties by grafting 
on stocks of a kindred nature raised from seed. Of these I give a brief 
description. First, The Crab stock, a native, preferred on account of its 
durability as a stock for orchard standards. That prince of pomologists 
the late Mr. Thos. Rivers, however, was a strong advocate for the 
Paradise stock, of which there are some four varieties. Second, The 
French Paradise, a miniature, surface-rooting, dessert x\pi)le, extensively 
used at one time by nurserymen as a dwarfing stock Brrt Mr. Thomas 
Rivers improved upon this, and gave us three varieties of what is now 
known as the English Paradise—viz., the Nonemch, Broad-leaved, and 
Pigmy. The first two are remarkable for the fertility they give to Apple 
trees, the Pigmy for its minute proportions, and in consequence is not 
much in demand. The Broad-leaved Paradise has irndoubtedly proved 
itself of great value, especially in small gardens, where much space 
could not be afforded, and in cases where a quick return of fruit was of 
the first importance. Third, The “ Free Stock,” from the pips of Apples 
sown and grown until it is the size of the finger. This is the best, 
the most extensively used, and in the long run the most profitable, as 
well as the most natural. 
The Apple may also be grown from cuttings, although it is not 
practised to any great extent. Yet undoubtedly good and durable fruit 
trees may be had by this method. I do not know whether any of our 
fruit-growing nurserymen grow any from cuttings. I have never seen 
any in the nurseries of my acquaintance. I am inclined to think that it 
would be a good thing if some of our leading nurserymen were to make 
a trial of cuttings, in order to ascertain if such trees struck from healthy 
cuttings arc liable to canker. I have certain ideas respecting this 
disease, which I refer to further on. I will only say here that cuttings 
inserted, as is usual with other hardwooded things, from October to 
Christmas, will take root, and ultimately form trees, though they do not 
grow with that precocious vigour ■which is characteristic of the graft, 
and this is no doubt the reason why they are not more frequently grown. 
I will not stay to describe the means adopted to raise the various kinds 
of stocks. I will only say that in two years, or at the most three years, 
they would be of a suitable size for grafting upon. In most nurseries 
they are set in rows 4 feet apart, and 1 foot between the plants, and 
there they are grafted. 
Grafting operations commence in spring, as soon as the sap is in 
rapid motion—late in March or early in April. The stocks are then 
headed back to within 6 inches of the ground, a slice taken off the side, 
with a transverse cut across for the insertion of the tongue of the scion. 
An expert knifeman will fit it so that the bark of both stock and scion 
shall be in conjunction, though this is not always possible all round, 
but it is very desirable ; and it is to be regretted that the exigencies of 
trade do not permit of closer attention to this important part. The 
cambium of both being fitted together it is firmly kept there with a 
binding of matting, and afterwards covered with grafting wax (a much 
more efficient method of excluding the air and preventing evaporation 
than the old custom of covering with a mixture of clay and cow manure), 
and the process is complete. Low grafting is found to be the best. No 
cultivator would go higher than 6 inches, while many graft below the 
surface ; and there is much to be said in favour of such a method, inas¬ 
much as it is possible to hasten and to make the union more effective 
by earthing the part up with soil. 
Budding is another form of grafting, and takes place in August. I 
would sooner have budded than grafted trees; to my thinking the union 
of stock and scion is more complete, and there is less danger of canker, 
and I believe it will continue to grow in favour. The stock needs little 
preparation beyond cutting away a portion of the. lower branches for 
convenience ; the bark of the stem is then openel, and a bud inserted. 
Those who have ever budded a Rose will need no further description of 
the process. It is similar in every respect to budding on the Manctti 
in Rose culture. 
The grafting operations of spring will result in maiden trees the same 
season, any that fail will come in for budding in Au ust. Tnese remain 
dormant until the spring. They are then headed back to within 
G inches of the bud. This 6 inches is left to act as a supp rt, to which 
the young bird may be secured when it bursts forth in spring. Hand¬ 
some and straight trees are the result of budding. Some varieties are 
more prone than others to produce pyramids ; others again will make a 
clean stem of 6 feet, all such are taken for standards. Apples are grown 
in various forms; there is the standard high and low, pyramids, 
bushes, espaliers, and cordons. Some prefer one shape and some 
ano her. I do not care for cordons, it seems to me to be a too restricted 
form. I prefer the horizontal form for espaliers, the bush for the open 
ground, and the standard for orchards, and I believe the majority of 
gardeners are of the same opinion. 
The popular idea of an orchard is a piece of land planted with fruit 
trees in regular lines at equal distances apart, enclosed by a hedge and 
laid down in grass for grazing. There is a growing conviction, increas¬ 
ing in volume every year, that the time has come for a sweeping change in 
our ideas of fruit culture in general, and in orchard trees in particular. 
To the credit of gardeners be it said, aided by the horticultural press, 
they are not behind in this matter. It is gratifying to notice the improve¬ 
ment which is manifest with regard to garden culture of fruit trees, 
but the orchards of the country are under their control, only to a 
small extent. Were they in the charge of gardeners, what with the 
splendid varieties of Apples we have and the improvement of our know¬ 
ledge of the principles which govern fruit culture, we should soon see a 
change for the better, and the day of the poor varieties of Apples which 
glut the markets of the country would have an end. 
It has often occurred to me that the walled enclosure is not (he proper 
place for large fruit trees and vegetables at the same time. Let it be one 
thing or the other. The vegetable quarters should be free and open on 
all sides, with a standard if you like in the centre of the squares. The 
old idea, too, of espaliers to line the sides is good, and ought not ro be 
lightly .set aside. If such ideas were adopted we could devote more time 
and attention to the orchard proper. 
Apples would take the most exposed side of the orchard, and should 
be planted 25 feet apart in well prepared ground. Grass walks might 
intersect every two rows, the ground around the trees being kept open 
and manured, much in the same way as we would do in a Rose garden. 
I fail to see why we should take so much trouble with our Roses and 
neglect the more valuable fruit trees. Let the air and sun heat into 
the soil, and apply manure to encourage the roots near the surface. Lew 
bushes of Currant and Gooseberries cruld be grown between the trees, 
and 1 he whole kept as a fruit garden, and not as grazing ground for 
sheep. Standards two years old can be purchased at 2.s. each, or less if 
a quantity is required. They are better than maiden trees, and are 
generally furnished with from three to five shoots. Cut off with a sharp 
knife all roots the ends of which were damaged in lifiing, endeavour to 
keep them within the top foot of ground when planting, press moderately 
firm, but do not ram hard, and secure the young tree to a stake. It is 
best to leave the pruning until March in the case of newly plante 1 trees ; 
they should then be cut back to four or five eyes. This hart pruning is 
n'^cessary to f rm the foundation for tlie future head ; no central shoot 
should be allowed ; mulch around the roots and let the tree alone. After 
the first year, unless the growth is irregular, there will be no need to cut 
back, but. thin weakly growths, keeping an open and well-balanced 
head, merely removing the tips some 3 or 4 inches, not more. In the cas'’s 
of good strong stout shoots but not long 1 inch would be sufficient. This 
makes the ba.se of the tree strong enough to bear the future and stop the 
weeping tendency which totally unprunel trees are inclined to take. 
Always remember that light and air are necessary to produce fertility ; 
hide the light, and we get a mass of leaves which have not the texture of 
those which encourage the development of fruit buds at their base. 
Attend to this and be liberal to the roots, and the o;chard would prosper. 
EajpaUers .—Nurserymen usually take considerable pains in training 
these into the horizontal shape. In (he grafting quarters those trees 
which are not required for pyramids or standards are headed back to 
1 foot. They require watching, however, previous to training in order 
to induce them to throw the laterals properly. When one pair is made 
and the leader is going ahead it is sometimes necessary to pinch the 
point to get the second pair. In midsummer the trees are trained to a 
rough trellis made on the spot by driving small stakes in the soil on 
either side of the tree ; crosspieces are fastened with matting, the tree 
being brought into position ii soon “knocked” into shape. If maiden 
trees arc preferred this operation can be mo.st satisfactorily done on the 
espalier they are lintended to cover. Espaliers if of iron arc a costly 
