December 27,1888. ] 
JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE AND COTTAGE GARDENER. 
591 
people of certain countries, and which is yearly becoming more prized 
by the people of the whole world, deserves more than a passing men¬ 
tion. The more so, since the oldest and largest Olive orchard, outside 
of those planted by the Mission Fathers, is located in Santa Clara 
’County. 
(To be continued.) 
ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. 
(Presidential address to tbe Highbury Microscopical Society, by Mr. James A. For3ter.] 
(Concluded from page 525 .) 
The aphis is one of the main causes of Apples falling immature from 
the trees, and also largely affects the quality of the cider in certain 
seasons. This species is found all over the world. The Americans, 
however, claim that the pest was introduced in their orchards by trees 
brought from Europe. Another species very injurious to orchards is 
known as the woolly aphis, or American blight (Schizonema lanigera). 
Everyone who has closely noticed Apple trees will have frequently re¬ 
marked knots or bunches of a downy or woolly substance on parts of the 
stems and in interstices of the bark. This is very frequently supposed 
to be a form of mildew, but if closely examined it will be found that 
this woolly substance covers little groups of aphides, all actively engaged 
in extracting the sap. This form is specially liable to attack newly 
pruned trees if the cutting has been done carelessly. Old and neglected 
orchards, of which there are too many, are the special home of this pest, 
the lichenous and moss-covered stems exactly suiting it and enabling it 
to remain unsuspected, while the trees attacked become after a time 
covered with swellings, checking leaf and blossom, and ultimately 
causing both stem and twigs to decay. This state is frequently called 
canker, and is attributed to any cause but the right one—the exhaustion 
brought about by the persistent suckings of myriads of larvee. 
I have dwelt much longer than I intended on the aphis ; but before 
I pass on to other of our insect troubles, I must say a word or two 
about the phylloxera (P. vastatrix), which, although not occurring in 
this country, has produced such wholesale destruction in the French 
vineyards, that its name has become known throughout the claret¬ 
drinking world. The phylloxera is a species of aphis of very small 
size, and somewhat different in form from the species known in this 
country. It first appeared in France about the year 1863 or 1864, and 
is supposed to have been brought from America. It attacked first the 
Gard district; then rapidly spread to the south and west. Its minute 
size renders it almost indistinguishable without a glass, and its appear¬ 
ance is like a little powder adhering to the stem of the Vine. It is oval 
in form, is furnished with two vigorous antennas, and has an articulated 
beak more than half the length of its body. This, when not in use, is 
folded against the lower side of the thorax, where it lies between the 
six little legs. Its body tapers somewhat towards the extremity. Their 
changes and metamorphoses are very similar to those already described. 
Towards the twentieth day of their life, on their attaining the adult 
stage, the abdomen enlarges on the sides, and four mamelons appear, 
and immediately after the insect lays a batch of eggs. Each female 
lays about thirty eggs in each batch, and as there are eight generations 
•each year, the six months between April and November suffice to 
produce such a horde of the voracious creatures that more than half 
the vineyards of France have been destroyed by them. And even 
supposing means be found to extirpate them, it will require ten years 
for the mischief to be made good and the vineyards restored. 
The evil caused to the Vine by the phylloxera is a complete draining 
of the sap from the stems. They attack only the main stems, which 
furnish them most abundantly with the nourishment they require. In 
spite of the attack of these countless living pumps, which work inces¬ 
santly, the Vine stems continue a most rapid growth, more so than if in 
their normal and healthy state ; but they become yellow instead of 
white, then gradually pass to brown, the shrivelled bark serving as a lair 
for the phylloxera. As the evil continues, the bark becomes more and 
more folded and shrivelled, until at last it assumes a blackish tint and 
falls in a state of decay. The insects then abandon it to make fresh 
attacks on fresh Vines. Failing fresh plants, they attack the principal 
Toots, destroying their outer coverings after penetrating well below the 
bark. When one root is annihilated, they work underground to another, 
occasionally coming on to the surface of the ground to hunt for healthy 
Vines. 
If not easy oE detection in the commencement, the phylloxera cannot 
be overlooked after a time. After a vineyard has been infested for two 
or three years, the stems attacked underground produce only a leaf here 
and there. These are small and malformed, and after languishing for 
a time turn yellow and roll up. The whole plant dwindles, the Grapes, 
arrested in their development, hardly form, the pips split up, all fructi¬ 
fication. disappears, the leaves get thinner and smaller than ever, and 
soon the vineyard presents the aspect of complete ruin. And ruin it is, 
for the only cure is the thorough burning of the old Vines. 
Many remedies have been suggested, but I do not think any have 
been attended with much success. M. Dumas proposed the employment 
of a concentrated alkaline solution of sulphate of potassium, or soda, 
and the ammoniacal sulphate produced in gas works. It is believed 
that this, if carefully used, would be efficacious, as the phylloxera would 
be poisoned and the Vines probably much benefited and strengthened by 
this chemical manure, but one important difficulty arose—viz., the 
question of expense, which is prohibitory. 
Monsieur Bazille of Montpellier is stated to have employed with 
success a dressing composed of cow’s urine, an alkaline sulphate, and 
one tenth of oil or tar. I, however, think the true and practicable 
preventive for the attacks of the phylloxera has yet to be discovered, 
and considering the immense interests at stake, such a discovery would 
be well worth making, and the discoverer would deserve well of France 
and the world. 
The chief natural enemies of the aphis family are found among the 
beetles (Coleoptera), one family of which, the lady birds (Coccinellidae), 
are the great destroyers of aphides, on which these beetles, both in 
their larval and perfect states, feed with the utmost voracity, and no 
better precaution can be taken against the attacks of “ blight ” than 
the colonisation of lady birds in our gardens. Another most valuable 
insect ally for this purpose is the common gauze-wing fly, sometimes 
called the “ stink fly ” (Chrysopa perla). It is well known in gardens, 
is delicate green in colour, has a long, thin body, four very delicate 
wings, and two exceedingly bright golden eyes. When handled it im¬ 
parts to the fingers a most disgusting scent; hence its name of Stink fly. 
This fly in the perEect state preys on the aphis, hovering over the in¬ 
fested plants, alighting from time to time to snatch up some of 
its living food ; but it is in the larval state that it does the most 
execution. 
Among beetles we have many enemies, notably among whom may be 
mentioned the skipjacks (Elaterkhe), known in their larval condition 
as wireworms ; the May bugs and their allies (Melolonthidm) ; the 
weevils (Curculionidre), attacking corn, See., in store ; the corn beetle 
(Trogosita Mauritanica) ; the mealworm, another of the same family ; 
the pea beetles (Bruchidm) ; the pea weevils (Sitonidne) ; the wood¬ 
boring Hylesinidie, of which the Scolytus destructor, too well known in 
our parks, is a good example; the family of Longicornes, deadly 
enemies of forest trees ; and the Chrysomelidae or golden apple beetles. 
It is evident the limits of this paper would not permit me to give a life 
history of each of these destroyers. They are, with a host of others I 
have not enumerated, formidable destroyers, largely and directly affect¬ 
ing the profits of the farmer, though very frequently he has no idea of 
the cause of the failure of his crop, perhaps does not even know of the 
existence of the tiny ravager who has robbed him of the fruit of his 
toil. Take, for instance, the wireworm. This (Agriotes lineatus), in 
its perfect state, is a narrow brown beetle about two-fifths of an inch 
long, with long wing cases or elytra covered with parallel lines. They 
present somewhat a flattened appearance, and the thorax is produced 
into spines at the hinder angles, and underneath the breast plate is pro¬ 
duced into a long point. They are remarkable for their great power, 
when placed on their back, of jumping or throwing themselves into the 
air by means of a sudden jerk of the thorax, in effecting which the 
thoracic prolongations come into their places with a sharp sound like 
the shutting of a spring. Hence their popular name of click beetles or 
skipjacks. In the perfect state it is probable the beetle does little 
or no harm to the crops, but in the larval stage it is most formidable. 
The larva is something like the mealworm, but more slender and 
elongated ; it is yellow and exceedingly tough, like wire, whence its 
familiar name of wireworm. They have, I believe, no eyes, but 
possess a short, four-jointed antennae, and are furnished with short 
robust legs set close together. The apical segment, possessing an anal 
prolongation, is especially hard and frequently toothed ; they are found 
everywhere at the roots of plants. 
The attacks of wireworms are most serious to Sainfoin and Clover 
crops, also to pasture lands, the finer grasses being invariably chosen, 
and the frequent failure of the grass seeds results probably more often 
from the work of the wireworm than from any other cause. It is 
throughout the United Kingdom a continual source of harm and loss to 
every description of corn crop3. The wireworms fix their heads into 
the soft part of the stems, and with their hard, strong jaws gnaw away 
the tissues so as to entirely arrest the circulation of the sap. The insect 
remains in the larval state for several years (the limit generally accorded 
is five years), but it is difficult to ascertain the exact period. It is this 
long larval stage that causes them to be specially dangerous to those 
crops, such as Sainfoin, that remain on the land two or three years. 
When full grown the larva descends deep into the earth to undergo its 
transformation. It remains for a fortnight in the pupa condition, when 
the perfect insect emerges and comes to the surface of the ground. 
Fortunately this pest may be got rid of. A field that is infested with it 
should be thoroughly and deeply ploughed and scarified, and all growth 
in the soil rigidly destroyed. It should then lie fallow for a winter, and 
in the spring again carefully gone over to stop all weed growth, then be 
sown with tares. After this a crop of Mustard should be put in, and 
the wireworm will be effectually starved out, for numerous experiments 
have proved that it cannot eat either of these plants. 
Other classes of insect enemies are the Ceeidomiters or midges, of 
which the little Wheat midge may be seen at most seasons flying in 
swarms on the edge of Wheat fields. These later on deposit their eggs 
within the Wheat ears. The eggs soon hatch out little white maggots, 
which then bury themselves into the stigmata of tbe flowers of the 
Wheat plant, thus hindering the development of the grain, and fre¬ 
quently reducing the crop by a fifth or more. In some years the amount 
of destruction occasioned by it is very great. 
Another most mischievous insect and very troublesome to get rid of 
is the well-known daddy-longlegs (Tipula oleracea). The female fly is 
stated bv Curtis to contain some 300 eggs, forming a mass which fills 
nearly the whole of the abdorren. These she deposits in the autumn on 
