358 
JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE AND COTTAGE GARDENER. 
[ October 22, 1891. 
As autumnal tillage draws to a close, and the falling foliage of 
deciduous trees reminds us that winter is drawing near once more, 
reference is made to our note book for a reminder of wet spots 
where the crops failed in the past summer owing to defective 
drains, as well as of fields with the soil so water-logged that drains 
are indispensable, and must be had before another season’s growth 
begins. 
We may usefully remind our readers that land containing 
superfluous water, and from which the water does not pass away 
freely either naturally or artificially, is practically useless for culti¬ 
vation. It may be worked deeply, manured thoroughly, and 
cropped carefully, but it will be all to no purpose till drainage 
relieves it of the accumulation of water, which has not only kept 
it sodden and sour, but has also kept out air and the warmth 
which accompanies air circulation in the soil. 
AVarmth comes to the soil from drainage in another way, too, 
which all farmers ought thoroughly to understand. Gisborne, in 
his Essays on Agriculture, taught long ago that humid soils were 
very little benefited by summer heat, because water in a quiescent 
state is one of the worst conductors of heat. Water warmed at 
the surface transmits little or no heat downwards. The small 
portion warmed expands, becomes lighter than that below, and 
consequently retains its position upon the surface, and transmits 
no heat underneath. Evaporation is constantly going on, as the 
moisture constantly rises by capillary attraction to the surface, and 
so not only is the temperature of the soil low, but that of the 
atmosphere in contact with the surface i 3 low also. 
The undrained soil is thus kept sodden and cold by the water 
of attraction that is constantly ascending through it and passing 
off upon the surface by evaporation. Let us understand what this 
means. Gisborne shows that the evaporation of 1 lb. of water 
lowers the temperature of 100 lbs. of soil 10°. There is the fact, 
do not forget it ; and remember also, that when by judicious 
drainage we practically put a stop to such hurtful evaporation, 
keeping the water of attraction down to the drain level, and 
drawing off all superfluous water by filtration, we open the pores 
of the soil to atmospheric action. Every drop of water with¬ 
drawn from the soil by filtration leaves a vacuum that is 
instantly filled by air, the pressure of which upon the surface 
has been computed at 15 lb3. to each square inch. 
There is the theory of drainage placed once more before our 
readers, and it should be thoroughly mastered, so as to influence 
our practice beneficially, and enable us to do our work in the best 
way. There is really nothing in it but what an ordinary mind 
can grasp and retain, but its importance is obvious enough, and it 
is worthy of thoughtful discussion. Let the presidents of farmers’ 
clubs and agricultural chambers take for their next subject of 
discussion the theory and practice of land drainage, and they will 
find their meetings much better attended than when they are 
discussing the political aspect of some agricultural question. 
Now for the practical side of the question. The depth and 
distance apart of drains must always depend upon the nature and 
condition of the soil. To say that all land drains must be 4 feet 
deep and 30 feet apart is absurd. Happy is the man whose soil 
and subsoil is amenable to such treatment. We have drained land 
successfully in that way, but our success arose chiefly from the 
subsequent deep and thorough tillage of the soil. Taking that as 
the maximum depth and distance apart it may be modified in very 
heavy land downwards to 15 feet apart and 2 feet'deep. This of 
course means much more expense, and it should have very careful 
consideration beforehand, for it is quite worth while to calculate 
the cost of clay burning, lime dressing, dressings of coal ashes if 
they can be had in conjunction with the drainage. Much better is it 
to open up the soil and ensure its thorough division than to have 
drains very close together. Let the two processes of cultivation 
have equal attention, and the result is bound to be satisfactory. 
Let calculations be made of the number of pipes required— 
2-inch for the branch drains and 4-inch for the main drains—and. 
let them be carted on to the land as horses can be spared for the 
work. The drains should be marked beforehand, and a staff placed 
for every heap of pipes, the number for each heap being given to 
the man who receives the pipes from the carter. The branch 
2 inch drains should all run downwards to the main 4-inch drain, 
or to any convenient natural outfall ; we have frequently been 
able to avoid making a main drain by taking the drains into a 
ditch. In Suffolk especially, where all old ditches on farms 
are very deep and wide, main drains are seldom necessary. 
WORK ON THE HOME EARM. 
Mangolds have now attained full growth, and nothing will be gained 
by leaving them longer on the land. The risk of damage by frost, too, 
is so great now that no time should be lost in saving the crop. Let the 
heaps in the form of long ridges be made close by a hard road at the 
most accessible and convenient points for use in winter, cover the heaps 
well with straw, and cover it with enough soil to exclude frost from 
the roots. In frost of exceptional severity many of the roots in the 
outer layer are often frozen and spoiled, so that it is quite worth while 
covering the Mangold ridges with an outer layer of rough litter, such 
as Sedges, Fern, or hedge clippings, to make all safe. With such an 
abundance of herbage on pastures the Mangold tops can certainly be 
spared for ploughing in now, and the sooner it is done after the roots 
are cleared the better it will be for the land. 
Early crops of Swedes should also now be used, or stored in heaps for 
folding later on. An excellent plan is to place them in small cir¬ 
cular heaps equi-distant all over the field, for folding with hoggets in 
time for Barley or spring Oats. Care should be taken to follow the 
folds closely with the plough, and not to plough too deeply for such 
crops. 
Late sown crops of Swedes are now small firm roots, and we shall 
follow our usual practice of leaving them out for the ewes and lambs to 
be folded on in next February and March. The late Swedes so left out 
suffered so much from frost in some districts last winter as to be practi¬ 
cally useless. But that was such a frost as may not occur again for a 
life’s time. Certainly we shall not let it influence our practice, as we 
always take care to have the late Swedes sown in a well-drained upland 
field where the risk of harm is reduced to a minimum. 
Early hoggets are now in folds on late white Turnips and Swedes, 
sown in alternate strips across the field. They have a few hours on 
pasture also every day, and are all the better for the change. These 
sheep are having a pint of nibbled Oats per head daily, as well as the 
roots, and are in forward condition for the butcher. A nice batch of 
such sheep, and a score or two of steers coming off marsh pasture 
towards the end of this month, wanting little, if any, finishing for 
market, is the sort of thing to give a farmer a free hand, and to enable 
him to avoid corn-threshing till autumn work is over and the corn is 
in sound condition. That is good management, but then it requires 
plenty of capital for it to be done in the best way. 
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
CAMDEN SQUARE, LONDON. 
Lat. 51° 32' 40" N.; Long. 0° 8' 0" W.; Altitude, 111 feet. 
DATE. 
9 AM. 
IN THE DAY 
P 
33 
« 
1891. 
October. 
Barome¬ 
ter at 323 
and Sea 
Level. 
Hygrome¬ 
ter. 
Direction 
of Wind. 
[ Temp, of 
soil at 
I 1 foot. 
Shade Tem¬ 
perature. 
Radiation 
Temperature. 
Dry.' 
Wet. 
Max. 
Min. 
In 
sun. 
On 
grass 
Inches. 
deg. 
deg. 
deg. 
deg. 
deg. 
deg’ 
deg. 
In 
Sunday. 
11 
29.581 
55.8 
53.7 
S. 
54.0 
62.2 
49.1 
82.6 
43.0 
0.180 
Monday. 
12 
29.428 
49.2 
47.6 
s.w. 
54.0 
59.3 
46.9 
93.9 
41.2 
0.06 a 
Tuesday .... 
13 
29.401 
59.1 
46.9 
s. 
52.4 
60.6 
43.9 
75.2 
86.2 
0.236 
Wednesday.. 
14 
29.486 
54.7 
48.9 
s.w. 
52.4 
62.0 
50.1 
ICO 9 
44.6 
0.079 
Thursday.... 
15 
29.531 
55.0 
51. 1 
s.s.w. 
52.0 
69.1 
50.3 
92.7 
4S.2 
0.437 
Friday . 
16 
24.514 
53.6 
51.1 
S.w. 
51.1 
57.7 
45.1 
91.1 
36.9 
0.061 
Saturday .... 
17 
29.817 
47.2 
44.7 
s.w. 
50.9 
58.0 
41.8 
97.8 
36.6 
0.010 
29.552 
52.2 
49.3 
52.4 
59.8 
46.7 
90.6 
40.2 
1.051 
REMARKS. 
11th.—Fair morning, with a little sun ; wet afternoon and night. 
I2ih —Bright almost throughout, but a shower at 120 P M., tbe sun shining meanwhile. 
13th.—Bright from sunrise to 9 a. M , then overeat to noon; wet afternoon, and heavy 
rain at night. South-east gale in afternoon and night. 
14th.—Generally bright, with high wind, but occasional rain squalls, and thunder tt 
11.20 A.M 
15th.—Wet till 9 A M , and generally overcast till 11 A.M. ; thunderstorm at 11.30, with 
hail and heavy rain, then alternate sunshine and rain squalls ; bright alteration 
and evening. 
10th.—Wet till 9 A.M., and generally cloudy in morning ; bri’ht afternoon ; rain at 
night. 
17th.—Bright till about 3 P M., then overcast, with occasional slight showers or dri n.'p. 
Another wet week, with a heavier gale than has reaently occurred, and thund :: on 
two consecutive days.—9. J. SYMONS. 
