41 
PART 1.] LjjdekJter \ (je<jliigy of Ladd]; and Netyklouring Districts. 
been washed from the neigliboiuing rocks. Tlie copper occurred in irregular 
nodules of many pounds weiglit. I could not discover the copper in situ, and can¬ 
not therefore say positively whether it was derived from the Tcrtiarics or from 
the older rocks further south.’ 
To the south-east of Kio the Tertiary boundary runs near the right bank of 
the Markha river, crosses the Ladak and Kulu road at Latho, thenco continues 
along the left bank of the Indus towmrds the Chinese frontier. The coarse 
conglomerates that form the highest bodfe of the series between Kio and Latho 
may be traced far to the east of the latter place. On the Markha river between 
those two places, masses of trap occur on the southern border of the Eocenes. 
This trap is of a highly crystalline structure, and not like the compact green¬ 
stones and serpentines of Shargol. 
The line of occurrence of this trap is generally near the junction of the Palaso- 
zoics and the sedimentary Tertiaries, as is well seen near Gia, where the trap has 
cleai'ly intruded among the Palaeozoic limestone, which is hero full of Encrinites. 
On the Markha river and to thesoutli-east of Gi'a, numerous trap-pebbles 
are included in the upper Tertiary conglomerate; but it is not clear that these 
pebbles belong to the same mass of trap as the one on this line. 
The large mass of trap on the upper Indus above Leh forms a ridge-shaped 
mass, extending between the sedimentary Tertiaries to the north and the gneiss 
of Eupsu to the south. The upper Tertiary conglomerate near Gia and to the 
eastward contains pebbles of trap, of crinoidal Carboniferous limestones, of Rupsu 
gneiss, and of the lower Tertiary rocks. South-east of Gia the band of Carboni¬ 
ferous rocks dies out, and the Tertiaries are in direct contact with the gneiss of 
Rupsu. 
Along the whole of the southern border of the Tertiaries to the east of the 
Zanskar river, these rocks have been much disturbed, and are not unfroquently 
inverted ; from the distinct occurrence of overlap here and there, it seems pro¬ 
bable that this boundary, like the northern, indicates the original limit of the 
area in which the rocks were deposited: the trajj has, however, probably dis¬ 
turbed the original relations of these rocks. 
The occurrence of nummulites in the higher Eocene rocks proves that these 
beds are of marine origin. Many of the lower littoral beds, on the other hand, 
from their heterogeneoms composition, and from the frequent occurrence of cross¬ 
bedding, appear to me very probably to be of fresh-water or brackish origin. In 
the lower beds near Kargil, Mr. Drew obtained some gastropods allied to 
Melania, and some bivalves which seem to me to be Unto and Dreissena, though 
Dr. Stoliczka^ considered them as Pholadoniya or Panopmi ; if my interpretation 
be correct, it confii-ms the fresh water origin of these rocks, which is borne out 
by the occurrence of an Estheria near Leh. 
The above facts lead, I think, to the conclusion that the nummulitic rocks of 
the upper Indus valley were deposited in a nai’row arm of the sea (as was 
* General Cunningham (“Ladak,” p. 22) says that the name Zanskar (or more correctly Zang.s- 
kar) means “ white copper ” or brass; and at p. 231 of the same work, he concludes from this 
meaning that copper must occur in that country, though he could not hear of it, 
^ Mem. of the Geol. Surv. of India, Tol, V, p. 348. 
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