454 
NYMPHALIDAE. By H. Fruhstorfer. 
chrome variation of Hypolimnas is actually surpassed only by the protistic development of the $$ of the Pa- 
pilio memnon group. The ground colour is most commonly a bright brown or brown-yellow, pure white species 
are very scarce ( Helcyra ), yellowish tints as in the Pieridae and the neotropical Papilionidae are entirely 
absent, nor do we find any dominating green, as in, for instance, Char axes eupale among the africans and Me- 
tamorpha clido from South America. 
In their habits the Nymphalidae are sunlovers, with few exceptions ( Amnosia , Mynes, Prothoe ); they 
rarely take refuge in the shade of trees or woods ( Euthalidae, Kallima, Cethosia, Terinos) as is the rule with 
the Satyridae and Amathusiidae. Also, almost without exception, they sit on the upper side of the leaves 
with wide-spread wings, and sometimes even forget the protective colouring of the under surface (Kallima). 
On the other hand, a few genera, as all sand and moisture imbibers ( Cynthia) never open their wings, so also 
the Dolleschallia with leaf-like underside. Their flight is usually rapid and skilful, sometimes quick and jerky 
(Charaxes). Yet there are exceptions, as in the heavy, clumsy Kallima, or the sluggish Hypolimnas $$, remark¬ 
able for their resemblance to Danaidae. A number of genera are exclusively melitophilous and therefore flo¬ 
wer haunters ( Parthenos , Cethosia, Athyma, Neptis, Euripus): a few only prefer the soil (Prothoe, Cynthia , Syrn- 
brenthia, Stibochiona). A few may be attracted by hanging up fruit bait (Kallima Euthalia, Prothoe), others 
visit woodland taverns ( Vanessa), or they seek animal droppings (Charaxes), unless they collect around fallen 
fruits (Euthalia, Charaxes) or in dry localities seek the urine of cattle, monkeys and human beings (Charaxes). 
The Nymphalidae are without exception diurnal fliers, but, although they do congregate on damp banks and 
wet spots on paths, yet colonies coveiing several square meteis as with the Pieridae and Papilioiiidae in the 
Indian region, have not yet been observed. A few genera are of cosmopolitan character (Junonia, Argynnis)] 
a few only bi-continental (Ergolis, Cyrestis) ; some are spread over the whole region under consideration and are 
individually numerous ( Neptis , Junonia, Argynnis), others local and in small numbers (Amnosia, Dilipa). The 
migration of swarms, as found in the Pieridae and Danaidae, are not known, excepting of Pyrameis cardui, 
yet isolated species are incomparably rarer than in the Pieridae, Satyridae and even Danaidae. On the other 
hand, the tendency to the formation of insular and local races, or even species, is present in the Nymphalidae 
to a high degree, and constant, invariable species are extremely rare. Even the unvarying citizen of the world 
(Pyrameis cardui) surrenders his powers of resistance in the tangle of the malayan islands, and breaks up 
into distinctly recognizable local forms. The capacity for the formation of species or subspecies increases to 
the East, thus the species of Cynthia, Cupha, Cethosia and Mynes of the papuan region and the Solomons are 
much more sharply differentiated within short distances than their western representatives. 
In the malayan region Celebes and Ceram possess the giants among all the forms here dealt with, and 
Java has always the palest extremes (Athyma, Neptis). The indian continent, with a few endemic genera (Di¬ 
lipa) has the greatest wealth; by its side stands Macromalayana, having also 40 genera, as many as are known 
fiorn the whole african region, one (Amnosia) being endemic. Noithward the number diminishes rapidly; the 
Philippines have still 30. Foimosa about 25 and Liu-Kiu Islands only 12 genera. New Guinea is the home 
of 22, the Bismarck Island 20 and the Solomons have 15 genera. 
In .vertical distribution the Nymphalidae are less capable of expansion and resistance than are the 
Pieiidae and Satyridae. They mostly prefer the low lands and the hills up to about 1500 or 2000 m; moun¬ 
tain species are rare. A few only, Vanessa and Neptis, go up to 4000 m, and but two reach elevations of about 
5000 m, Argynnis and Melitaea, whose native country, as also that of one or other of the Vanessa, must be 
sought in the palaearctic region. 
As already mentioned, the Nymphalidae are strongly subject to local influences, mostly in the eastern 
region, and especially to insular isolation, and the result is seen in an endless chain of races and forms, the 
links of which are yet far from being known. In contrast to this, the Nymphalidae are less susceptible to pure¬ 
ly climatic influences than are the Pieridae and Satyridae, we may therefore seek among them in vain for 
such forms, altered almost beyond recognition, as are found in Appias, Huphina and Mycalesis. The ex¬ 
ceptions are usually noted in the dry-season colouring of the underside of the wings (Junonia, Yoma, Cupha, 
Cynthia). 
In Kallima there is a parallel development of the apex of the wing, a phenomenon which finds an ana¬ 
logue in the Pierid genus Hebomoia. In Pantoporia the dry season colouiing consists in an increase of the pale 
tint on the upper surface, otherwise we find only a decrease in size, accompanied by a bleaching of the under¬ 
side. The Nymphalidae are generally regarded as a phyletically junior branch of the Lepidopteia, yet the 
species are mostly sufficiently consolidate!, and the specific characters as a rule distinct and easily recogni¬ 
zed. Doubts as to the connection between the <$$ and their such as we have with Pieridae and Satyridae, 
rarely occur. The members of two genera only are exceptions; Neptis and Tanaecia with their endless ana- 
