83 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
subordinate ends we seek, is the ultimate object of 
man’s pursuit. 
The improvement of the mind is too little regarded 
by almost all; especially by those whose avocations 
lead them to active bodily labor. It is too common 
for this class of men to excuse themselves on account 
of want of time. “ They have so much active bodily 
labor to perform, that they cannot find time for read¬ 
ing and study.” Now this might be a very good ex¬ 
cuse, if, for the improvement of the mind, it was ne¬ 
cessary for a man to confine himself exclusively to 
books. But this is not the case. I venture to say, 
that the man who has received his education and ideas 
of things exclusively, or principally, from books, is 
neither a wise nor a useful, man. It is the practical 
manual laborer who combines the education of his 
mind with his labor, who is best calculated to be use¬ 
ful to the world ; and consequently we find, that those 
who, on the page of history stand most conspicuous 
for their usefulness, were of this class. Let it not be 
understood here that I would derogate from the use 
of books. No: if any art with which man is ac¬ 
quainted should be considered truly sacred, it is that 
of printing—thus canvassing ideas for the transmis¬ 
sion of knowledge. I would say to every young man, 
read much; read all you can, consistently with your 
higher duties. But it is the idea that unless a man 
can spend the most of his time in reading, it is use¬ 
less for him to try to make himself acquainted with 
the sciences, that I would combat. Every man, even 
the most busily occupied, can find some time for read¬ 
ing, without sacrificing his business. Every man 
needs some time for relaxation from bodily labor.— 
This is the time, if he can find no other, to be spent 
in reading: and it can be spent in this way most plea¬ 
santly, as one at least can testify. What I would 
particularly enjoin on my fellow young men is, not to 
think of studying only while engaged with a book; 
but study while at your labor—in the fields—the fo¬ 
rest—every where, and at all times. Nature is the 
great field for the exercise and development of our 
mental faculties. 
Perhaps some might object to the course recom¬ 
mended, on the ground of its not affording encourage¬ 
ment for pecuniary gain. “ They think they could 
make money faster, without all this trouble of think¬ 
ing of matters of no consequence.” It is a fact that 
many men consider the great principles of the opera¬ 
tions of nature—principles on which depends their 
very existence, as matters of little importance.— 
Those who manifest a desire to search out these great 
truths, especially if it cost them any time, are stig¬ 
matized with the odious name of idlers. True, our 
investigation or knowledge of these principles would 
not change, or continue them; but it is very far from 
being true that a knowledge of them is of little im¬ 
portance. To prove this, it will not be necessary to 
show the superiority of man over an animal—all of 
us know it. But in what does this superiority con¬ 
sist! Is it in the structure of his body? No, for 
then you merely make him the more perfect machine. 
What then? It must be in his mind. Well, if in 
his mind, in what quality or qualities of the mind does 
it consist? Is it that man is a money making animal ? 
No: it is in his power of reasoning—of investigating 
the works of his Creator; and in his moral affections. 
It is in his capacity to trace through the varieties of 
nature the marks of design and benevolence which 
lead him up to nature’s God. 
But aside from this, the improvement of the mind 
has a direct and most important bearing on the 'pecu¬ 
niary interests of mankind. This proposition is so 
self evident as hardly to need illustration. The pro¬ 
gress of the sciences depend on the improvement of 
the mind, or on the power of the mind to trace effects 
to their causes—and vice versa. And it is evident 
that our pecuniary interests are advanced by an ad¬ 
vance of science. By the science of astronomy, and 
the application of the magnetic properties of iron to 
the mariner’s compass, our ships are enabled to put 
out into the vast ocean, thousands of miles from land, 
thus forming channels of communication between dif¬ 
ferent nations, and exchanging the commodities of 
different countries. By the scientific application of 
steam to machinery, we have our steam-boats and 
rail-road cars; and an engine capable of performing 
almost any kind of labor. So in instances without 
number, science contributes to the necessities and 
comforts of man. 
More than this ; the improvement of the mind is a 
positive duty : one of the highest duties enjoined on 
man. It is a duty we owe, both to our Creator and 
to ourselves. We owe it to our Creator; He has 
given us a perfect law and standard of action, and 
commands us, under the severest penalties, to ob¬ 
serve and obey them ; while that obedience is its own 
reward. It improves the moral faculties of the mind, 
and therefore tends to render us happy. We owe it 
to ourselves ; because we ought so to act, keeping the 
gTeat object of our existence in view, as best to attain 
the end. We are commanded to “prove all things.’’ 
We are not called on in the word of God, or in the 
works of nature, to believe any thing which is op¬ 
posed to reason. We cannot do it. It is contrary to 
the constitution of mind. We may be, however, and 
are, bound to believe many things which reason can¬ 
not explain or account lor. Therefore it is necessary 
to be able to distinguish between what is reasonable 
and what is unreasonable, in order, as the scriptures 
express it, to “ hold fast that which is good.” 
Thus I have attempted to show the advantages of 
science to agriculture—the feasibility to the farmer of 
the improvement of the mind by the study of nature— 
the results of that study—the degradation consequent 
on its neglect:—that the improvement of the mind is 
a matter of interest, and that it is a duty. The ob¬ 
ject of writing this brief essay was to impress on the 
minds of young men, particularly those engaged in 
agricultural pursuits, the importance of the improve¬ 
ment of the too much neglected mental faculties. It 
is truly the mind that makes the man. It is in the 
power of almost every young man to make himself 
distinguished for usefulness to the world ; though the 
usefulness should be the motive, and not the being 
distinguished. “ Nothing is of any value, except that 
which costs us labor.” The improvement of the 
mind will require some ex.ertion. We must expect 
it: for, like every thing else valuable, it is not to be 
attained for nothing. But the results of this labor 
will fully compensate all those who undertake it. 
Albany, May, 1838. P. 
Chemical Catechism—Chapter II. 
OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR. 
What are the obvious properties of atmospheric air ? 
Fluidity, elasticity, expansibility and gravity. 
What do you mean by the elasticity of the air ! 
If atmospheric air be compressed into a small com¬ 
pass, it has the property of recovering its former state 
as soon as the pressure is removed, which is called its 
elasticity, (a) 
Wlial is meant by the expansibility of the air ! 
The expansibility of the air is its property of being 
rarified by heat, so as to occupy a larger space than 
it would at a lower temperature, (b) 
How far does the atmosphere extend! 
The atmosphere is several miles high, but it is so 
very much attenuated at considerable heights, that it 
cannot be ascertained how far it actually does ex¬ 
tend. 
What are the various uses of the atmosphere! 
The atmosphere is necessary for the support both 
of animal and vegetable life.(c) It is indispensable 
in all the common processes of combustion; it mi¬ 
nisters to several of the pleasures which we derive 
from our senses ;(d) it gives buoyancy to the clouds, 
and enables the feathered creation to transport them¬ 
selves from one part of the earth to another. 
But what is the use of the atmosphere being so ex¬ 
tended so far above the surface of the earth! 
It is this great extension of the air which occasions 
it weight; and the pressure of such a weight produces 
many important effects in the economy of nature.(e) 
What are the effects of the iveight of the atmosphere ! 
It is owing to the weight of the atmosphere that 
we are enabled to raise water from beneath the sur¬ 
face of the earth by the common pump,(/) and to per¬ 
form many other useful operations. 
What other advantages do we derive from this exten¬ 
sion of the atmosphere ! 
If we had little or no atmosphere, we should have 
no cold water; for the waters on the lace of the earth 
would all evaporate at a very inferior temperature ;(g) 
besides, the arterial vessels of all organized beings, 
would be so constantly distended, that animal and 
vegetable life would be endangered. 
How are waters and other fluids preserved to us by 
the weight of the atmosphere ! 
The weight of the atmosphere, pressing on the 
water, binds it down as it were, and prevents the 
usual heat of the sun from converting this and all 
other fluids on the face of the earth into vapor. 
Hoio does the weight of the atmosphere operate so as 
to be beneficial to the animal and vegetable creation ! 
The uniform pressure of the atmosphere on the 
exterior of all organized beings, counterpoises the in¬ 
ternal pressure of the circulating fluids, and preserves 
the vessels in due tone and vigor .(h) 
What is the weight of the atmosphere ? 
Each square foot of the the earth’s surface sustains 
about 2,180 pounds of atmospheric air. A column of 
air an inch square weighs about fifteen pounds. (f) 
What other advantages do we derive from this im¬ 
mense atmosphere ! 
The great density of the atmosphere gives a pro¬ 
per temperature to the rays of the sun: it also re¬ 
flects those rays so as to give a lucid brightness to 
every part of the heavens, and is the cause of those 
dews and rains which make the earth fruitful. 
What is the real nature of the air which forms the 
atmosphere of this earth ! 
This immense atmosphere is composed of oxygen 
and nitrogen, two different airs, which are intimately 
mixed in certain definite proportions. 
Are oxygen and nitrogen the only substances which 
enter into the composition of the atmosphere ! 
No; atmospheric air contains also about one part 
in every thousand of carbonic acid gas, and several 
adventitious substances. 
What other substances are found in atmospheric air ! 
Besides carbonic acid gas, it holds a portion of wa¬ 
ter in solution ; and sometimes contains hydrogen and 
carburetted hydrogen gases. 
What are the sources of these other gases ! 
Carbonic acid gas is constantly formed by the re¬ 
spiration of animals and by combustion : and hydro¬ 
gen and carburetted hydrogen gases arise from va¬ 
rious sources, particularly from marshes, stagnant 
pools, &c. all which are prejudicial to the animal cre¬ 
ation. 
If carbonic acid air and carburetted hydrogen air are 
prejudicial to animal life , how are they corrected in the 
atmosphere! 
These airs, which would cause the death of any 
animal obliged to breathe them, are the proper nu¬ 
triment of vegetables, and nature has endowed them 
with organs for their decomposition. 
You have spoken of different gases—what do you 
mean by gas! 
When solid substances are rendered perfectly ae¬ 
riform by heat, the air thus produced is called a gas, 
(j) to distinguish it from those aeriform substances 
which return to the solid or fluid state when the heat 
is removed. 
Is there any chemical means of analyzing atmosphe¬ 
ric air! 
By the operation of different agents, the separate 
gases may be separated from each other, and the 
quantity of each ascertained. 
Do you knoiv the proportions of the different gases in 
atmospheric air ? 
There are about 21 parts of oxygen gas, and 79 of 
nitrogen gas, in every 100 measures of atmospheric 
air, or nearly 23| of the former and 76| of the latter, 
if the calculation be made by weight. 
Is there much difference in the nature of these gases ! 
The oxygen gas in atmosphere air is the principal 
supporter of combustion, and the vehicle of heat; 
and is, as was before mentioned, absolutely necessary 
for the support of animal life. 
What is the nature of oxygen gas, when in a sepa¬ 
rate state ! 
Pure oxygen gas has the property of accelerating 
the circulation of all the animal fluids, and occasions 
the most rapid combustion of all combustible substan¬ 
ces ; so that it is the most energetic and powerful 
agent that we are acquainted with. 
What is the specific gravity of oxygen gas ! 
Oxygen gas is a little heavier than atmospheric air, 
and about 750 times lighter than water. 
What are the principal properties of nitrogen gas ! 
Nitrogen gas, or azote, is chiefly distinguished by 
certain negative qualities, such as its being incapable 
of supporting combustion and animal life,(fe) it is un- 
inflarneable, and somewhat lighter than atmospheric 
air. 
Seeing that nitrogen gas is injurious to animal life, 
what is tiff use of so large a quantity of it in atmosphe¬ 
ric air! 
Nitrogen gas has the effect of neutralizing, in some 
measure, the properties of oxygen gas, and rendering 
it fit for respiration and combustion. 
How is this change effected by nitrogen gas ! 
By the union of nitrogen gas with oxygen gas: the 
latter is so diluted and modified as to prevent com¬ 
bustion from being too rapid and respiration too stimu¬ 
lating; and by the due proportions in which these 
gases constitute the atmosphere, the compound pos¬ 
sesses properties so different from either of them as 
to be admirably fitted for every purpose for which it 
was designed. 
How does atmospheric air support life ! 
By giving out its oxygen and caloric to the blood. (Z) 
What do you mean by caloric ! 
Caloric is the name which modern chemists have 
given to fire, or the matter of heat; a large portion of 
which is intimately combined with atmospheric air. 
Is the caloric which is combined with the air we 
breathe, sufficient of itself, to keep up the necessary heat 
of the body! 
Animai heat is preserved chiefly by the inspiration 
ot atmospheric air. The lungs which imbibe the oxy¬ 
gen gas from the air, impart it to the blood ; and the 
blood, in its circulation, gives out the caloric to every 
part of the body.(m) 
How do clothes conduce to preserve the heat of the 
body ! 
As the temperature of the atmosphere in this cli¬ 
mate is always inferior to the animal temperature, 
clothes(n) are necessary to prevent the sudden escape 
of that heat from the surface of the body(o) which 
the lungs have separated from the atmosphere. 
