marl, and marble; and when united with sulphuric 
acid, it forms gypsum, or plaster of Paris. 
In the proceess of burning vegetables, lime is found 
in their ashes, but never, I believe, in such quanti¬ 
ties as potass, and consequently it is of less use to 
supply soils with it artificially on this account; but on 
account of its uniting with humic acid in form of a 
humate, and of the compound thus formed being rea¬ 
dily dissolved in water, it becomes highly useful. 
If quicklime, either fresh burnt or slaked, be mix¬ 
ed with moist vegetable substances, however hard 
and fibrous, it soon destroys their texture and forms a 
mixture, the greater part of which can be dissolved in 
water, thus rendering what was previously useless, 
fit for the food of plants. 
• On the other hand, it is injurious to mix quicklime 
with vegetable substances already soluble in water, 
or with any sort of dung, or other animal manure, 
lest it should take up too much humic acid. 
Lime, however, is more seldom used in gardens 
than in farms, and this is so far judicious, that garden 
soil would often, as appears from what has just been 
said, be thereby injured rather than benefitted. 
SUGAR AND GLUTEN. 
There are few plants that do not contain sugar, 
which chemists have shown to be composed of about 
three parts carbon, four parts oxygen, and eight parts 
of hydrogen. 
It should follow, therefore, that it is not necessary 
for it to be introduced into the soil in the state of su¬ 
gar, the constituents being always more or less con¬ 
tained in the water, and most probably combined into 
sugar after entering the system of a plant. This ap¬ 
plies also to starch, which is composed on the same 
principles, and may indeed be converted into sugar, 
as was lately discovered: and gluten differs only in 
containing nitrogen, in addition to the carbon, oxygen, 
and hydrogen. 
In a word, all substances of this kind which can be 
discovered in the soil, or in the water diffused through 
it, may be resolved into water, carbon, and nitrogen ; 
and hence it is of less consequence for our present 
purpose to notice separately every compound that 
might be enumerated. 
RECAPITULATION, AND PROOF FROM THE SAP. 
It hence appears, that the chief food of plants is 
carbonic acid gas, atmospheric air, and the humates 
of potass and lime mixed with water, and presented 
to the spongelets or suckers at the tips of the root 
fibres, to be thence carried into the interior of the 
plants. The examination of the sap, as it rises from 
the root into the inner bark of a tree, confirms the 
truth of these statements. 
This sap is usually found to be a clear fluid, of a 
pleasant taste, readily fermenting, and, in that case, 
giving eut, at first carbonic acid gas, and afterwards 
some azote. The chief portion of the sap is water, 
and it only differs from the moisture of the soil by ac¬ 
quiring in its passage upwards a portion of thicker 
fluid, which probably acts a part similar do the saliva 
of animals, mixed with the food in chewing, or to the 
digestive fluid in the animal stomach. By means of 
this, the sap becomes thicker the higher it rises.. M. 
Biot, of the French Institute, is at present, 1838, en¬ 
gaged in experiments w r hich bid fair to elucidate this 
important subject. His tests of the substances con¬ 
tained in the sap are made by the polarisation of 
light. 
Young' Men’s Department. 
Hints to Young Farmers—No. IX, 
DO NOT GET ABOVE TOUR BUSINESS. 
One of the most fatal errors which young men are 
apt to commit, is, when they have acquired the 
means of a comfortable independence, and are es¬ 
tablished in doing well enough, to get above their busi¬ 
ness. They are apt to relax in those labors, or in 
the supervision of them, which led to success—or to 
beeome dissatisfied with their moderate but certain 
gains, and seek to better their fortunes, and to ele¬ 
vate their standing, by embarking in some new busi¬ 
ness, to which they are yet strangers. 
It should be your aim, first, to make yourselves 
practically acquainted with the best modes of per¬ 
forming every operation of the farm; and, secondly, 
constantly to superintend and direct those you employ 
in these operations. There is hardly any business 
in life, in which success does not materially depend 
upon the practical knowledge and rigid supervision 
of the master. If you would have your w T ork done, 
see that it is done—if you would have it well done, 
lead in its performance. It will impair neither your 
physical nor intellectual powers, but invigorate and 
strengthen both. There are very few sufficiently 
trust-worthy and intelligent, to be charged with the 
entire management of a business in which they may 
be considered as mere hirelings. And unless the 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
master is a proficient in the business he is carrying 
on, in all its minutiae—unless he knows how every 
operation should be conducted—the time it will re¬ 
quire to perform it, and see that it is done well —he 
is subject to constant impositions, disappointments 
and losses. Hence we see, that not only in farming, 
but in most other employments, unless a man has 
practical knowledge, as well as theoretical, in the 
business he carries on, he is far less likely to succeed, 
than others who possess this practical knowledge. A 
man may be made to comprehend, very well, the plan 
and construction of a house, or the principle of ampu¬ 
tating a limb of the human frame; yet, until his hand 
is practised in carpentry, or in surgical operations, 
we should hardly venture to trust him to build our 
house or to cut off our leg. These remarks apply to 
the minute, as well as to the more enlarged opera¬ 
tions of the farm. If your workmen have confidence 
in your knowledge and judgment, and are aware of 
your critical supervision of your affairs, they will la¬ 
bor cheerfully and diligently, respect your authority 
and carry out your views of improvement. Hence, 
we repeat, make yourselves practically acquainted 
with every operation in farming—though you do not 
practise it after you have acquired that knowledge 
—be the manager of your own affairs as far as pos¬ 
sible—avoid the temptation to change, to indolence 
and to speculation, and be assured you will not fail 
to enjoy, in a large measure, the substantial com¬ 
forts and pleasures of life. And having realized these 
blessings yourselves, take care to secure them to 
your children, by inculcating and establishing in them, 
the principles and habits which have led to your in¬ 
dividual success. 
Another common propensity to error, in the farm¬ 
er, is to ape the follies, the fashions and the extra¬ 
vagance, in dress, equipage and supernumerary ser¬ 
vants, of what are termed the higher classes in so¬ 
ciety—which seldom redound either to our comfort, 
to our rational gratification, or to our respectability 
in life. An old veteran of the revolution, who had 
acquired a fortune by prudent industry, once remark¬ 
ed to us, that to gratify the feelings of a young fa¬ 
mily, he set up a coach. He was obliged, he said, 
to have horses and harness, and household furniture 
to correspond. His coachman required an extra 
maid to wait upon him, and the maid required a scul¬ 
lion to wait upon her; and he found, that instead of 
being master, and enjoying his quiet, he became vir¬ 
tually the servant to the coachman, maid and boy. 
So that after spending a thousand dollars a year, 
barely upon his coach establishment, he sold out, dis¬ 
missed his supernumeraries, and returned Lo his 
Dearborn wagon and horse, to the great relief of 
both his mind and his purse. It is comraendabie to 
endeavor to multiply around us the comforts, and even 
the innocent delicacies and elegancies of life; yet it is 
folly to adopt habits, either from ostentation, or a spi¬ 
rit of foolish rivalship, which are not adapted to our 
employments or our means, and are not calculated 
to make us either wiser or happier. Gentility, that 
is, politeness of manners, and easy, graceful behav¬ 
iour, may be cultivated in the country as well as in 
the city—as well upon the farm as behind the coun¬ 
ter. It is neither the coach, nor the gay dress, nor 
the ostentatious display, nor the title, that makes the 
gentleman, nor insures happiness. For, as Burns 
sings, though 
“ The king can make abetter knight, 
A marquis, duke and a' that, 
The pith of sense, and pride of worth, 
Are grander far than a' that.” 
Chemical Catechism—Chapter III. 
OF CALORIC. 
What is heat ? 
Pleat is the well known sensation which we perceive 
on touching any substance whose temperature is su¬ 
perior to that of the human body. 
What name is given to the matter of heat 1(a) 
Chemists have agreed to call the matter of heat 
caloric, in order to distinguish it from the sensation 
which this matter produces.(b) 
What are the 'principal uses of caloric 1(c) 
Caloric is every where indispensable to : the exis¬ 
tence of man. “ It is with fire that, in every coun¬ 
try, he prepares his food, that he dissolves metals, vi¬ 
trifies rocks, hardens clay, softens iron, and gives to 
all the productions of the earth the forms and combi¬ 
nations which his necessities require.” 
What are the sources of caloric l 
There are six sources from whence we procure ca¬ 
loric, viz. from the sun’s rays, by combustion, by per¬ 
cussion, by friction, by the mixture of different sub¬ 
stances, and by means of electricity and galvanism. 
Which of these is the principal source of caloric ? 
The sun is the chief, and, probably, the original 
fountain which furnishes the earth with a regular 
supply, and renders it capable of supporting the ani¬ 
mal and vegetable creations. (d) 
99 
How is caloric furnished by combustion ? 
The oxygen gas of the atmosphere is decomposed 
by combustion; and caloric, one of its component 
parts, is set at liberty. 
How is caloric produced by percussion ? 
The heat produced by percussion is generally oc¬ 
casioned by the compression of the particles of the 
body, which compression forces out a portion of its 
latent caloric.(e) 
How is caloric produced by friction 1 
It is not known how friction produces caloric,(/) 
unless we suppose it to be a succession of percus¬ 
sions. 
In what way can heat be produced by means of elec¬ 
tricity or galvanism, ? 
By the discharge of an electrical battery, or by the 
galvanic apparatus, a more intense degree of caloric 
may be obtained than by any other means whatever. 
How is caloric produced by mixture l 
When heat is produced by the mixture of two or 
more substances, it is owing to the fluid part of the 
mixture taking a more solid form; for neither water 
nor any other fluid can acquire an increase cf density 
without giving out a portion of its latent caloric, (g) 
You speak of latent caloric; is there any difference 
in the nature of caloric ? 
No: we have reason to believe that caloric is uni¬ 
form in its nature ; but this term is necessary because 
there exist in all bodies two portions of caloric, very 
distinct from each other. (A) 
How are these two portions of caloric distinguished ? 
The one is called sensible heat, or free caloric ; the 
other latent heat, or combined caloric. 
What do you mean by free or sensible caloric l 
Sensible caloric is the matter of heat disengaged 
from other bodies, or, if united, not chemically united 
with them. 
What is latent caloric ? 
Latent caloric is that portion of the matter of heat 
which makes no sensible addition to the temperatum 
of the bodies in which it exists. 
What substances contain latent caloric ? 
Caloric in a latent state exists in all substances that, 
we are acquainted with.(i) 
Do all substances contain the same quantity of latent 
caloric ? 
No: caloric combines with different substances (/) 
in very different proportions ; and for this reason one. 
body is said to have a greater capacity for caloric than 
another. 
Is this capacity for caloric uniformly the same in the 
same bodies ? 
The same bodies have at all times the same capa- 
city for caloric, unless some change takes place in 
the state of those bodies. 
Can you adduce instances of a change of this kind ? 
When gaseous substances become liquid, or liquid 
substances become solid,, they lose in a great mea¬ 
sure their capacity for caloric ; accordingly, when so¬ 
lid bodies become liquid or gaseous, their capacity for 
caloric is proportionately increased.(fc) 
How does this property of bodies operate ? 
Whenever a body has its capacity for caloric thus 
increased, it requires a larger portion of the matter 
of heat to raise it to a given temperature, than ano¬ 
ther body does which has a less capacity for caloric. 
Can you exemplify this curious property of matter ? 
If equal quantities by weight, of water and mercu¬ 
ry, cooled down to the same point, be afterwards se¬ 
parately heated to the heat of boiling water, the wa¬ 
ter will be found to have required more than three 
times the quantity of caloric that the mercury did ta 
bring it to that temperature. 
What term is made use of to denote the quantity of 
caloric thus required l 
The portion of caloric necessary to raise a body to 
any given temperature is called the specific caloric of 
that body ? 
Is there any method of ascertaining the specific calo¬ 
ric of different bodies, and comparing the relative capa¬ 
city of each for caloric l 
An instrument called a calorimeter is used for this 
purpose. The substances to be tried are heated to 
the same temperature, and then placed in this ma¬ 
chine surrounded with ice.(7) By observing how 
much ice each of them melts in cooling down to a 
given point, the specific caloric which each of them 
contained is determined. 
What do you call the instrument which is in common, 
use to tneasure the temperature of bodies 1 
It is called a thermometer, (m) It consists of a 
glass tube containing a portion of mercury, with a 
graduated plate annexed to it. The tube is hermeti¬ 
cally sealed, to preserve the metal from the pressure 
of the atmosphere. 
Do you understand how a thermometer is affected by 
the temperature of bodies ? 
When a thermometer is brought in contact with 
any substance, the mercury expands or contracts till 
it acquires the same temperature, (n) and the height 
