THE CULTIVATOR. 
137 
ing of minute globular bodies, are contained in the cells of 
fungus fruit in prodigious numbers, and they succeeded in 
observing these germinate and produce young plants like 
their parent. There therefore cannot remain a doubt, that 
funguses are produced from seeds in the same way as all 
other vegetables, though these seeds or sporules are exceed¬ 
ingly smaller than those of green plants—being as subtle, Mr. 
Fries remarks, sometimes as smoke. _ 
“ Contrary, then, to what takes place in regard to the eggs 
of insects, which are too heavy to be carried about by winds, 
und if they were lighter, are generally, when laid, glued to 
the substances destined for the food of the young, when 
hatched, the minute, light, subtle seeds of funguses and 
mosses are floated about in the air with the gentlest bieeze, 
and in this way diffused over immense tracts of country, in 
numbers altogether countless. The discovery of M. Dutro- 
chet is, therefore, of the greatest interest in making us ac¬ 
quainted win the economy of Providence in the propagation 
of fungi, hitherto altogether mysterious. 
“ What we term smut, canker and rust, are, according to 
this discovery of M. Dutrochet, only the fruit of particular 
funguses, the plants of which they are the fruits being hi¬ 
therto undescribed and unknown, but which must be sought 
for in the form of delicate fibres, probably transparent, and 
probably difficult to see in the textures of the corn affected 
with those destructive parasites. 
“ It forms no objection to this view, that the fibres of these 
funguses have not been seen except partially by Bauer and 
Ad. Brongniart, in their microscopal researches, for M. Du¬ 
trochet further found, that when the fruit of the plant observ¬ 
ed by him ( agaricus crispus,) sent up its foot-stalks, ( stipes) 
it became partially detached from the main plant, and inde¬ 
pendent of it for its future nourishment, the fibres of the 
main plant indeed becoming exhausted of substance, and dis¬ 
appearing as in what were previously supposed to be the roots 
at the base of the fruil-stalk in the edible mushroom, which 
supposed roots are the fibres of the main plant, partly ex¬ 
hausted of their substance by the nourishment of the fruit.” 
The editor of the Quarterly here details some in¬ 
genious experiments of M. Fee, to ascertain the man¬ 
ner in which plants become affected by fungi, or the 
mode in which the sporules are propagated. M. Fee 
infers from the result of these experiments, that the 
seeds or sporules of the fungi are sucked up with the 
moisture of the soil, by the tips or spongioles of the 
root fibres. 
ASCERTAINED CAUSE OF RUST OR MILDEW. 
“ The rust, and various sorts of what are termed mildew, 
are all caused by small fungi, such as the tuft-brand, ( Peccu- 
nia graminis, Persoon; or uredo famenti, Sowerby,) and the 
linedebrand, ( uredo linearis, Pcrsoon; u. largisseina, Sower¬ 
by,) which do not differ so much in the injuries which they 
produce as in tiieir mode of growth and appearance, as has 
been already described. 
“ The history of the red rust need not defain us, as it has 
been long well known from the very good account given of 
it by Sir Joseph Banks, with most admirable drawings, by 
M. Bauer. The opinion, however, which Sir Joseph seems 
to adopt, is, not that the seeds of the rust fungus get into the 
corn plants by the tips of the roots, but by the pores on the 
leaves and stems, being carried there by the winds, and caus¬ 
ed to adhere by the moisture of dew or rain. When once en¬ 
tered into the pores, he says— 1 they germinate, and push 
their minute roots, no doubt (though these have not yet been 
traced,) into the cellular texture beyond the bark, where they 
draw their nourishment by intercepting the sap that was in¬ 
tended by nature for the nutriment of the grain. The corn, of 
course, becomes shrivelled, in proportion as the fungi are 
more or less numerous on the plant; and as the kernel only 
is abstracted from the grain, while the cortical part remains 
undiminished, the proportion of bran in blighted corn is al¬ 
ways reduced to the same degree as the corn is made light. 
Some of the last year will not yield a stone of flour for a sack 
of wheat.’ ”— On blight in corn. 
PREVENTION OF RUST. 
On this branch of the subject, we find little to copy, 
that, in our opinion, is worth the pains. The writer 
adopts the opinion, that the seeds or sporules of the 
fungi, smut, canker and mildew, are disseminated in 
myriads over our fields—that these seeds are carried 
into the soil by the rain, and that they enter the plant 
by the tips of the roots. The prevention recommend¬ 
ed is paring and burning, or copiously liming; the 
first of which he thinks will destroy wholly, and the 
other partially, the vital power of the fungi. 
We dissent lrom the opinion of Fee, adopted by 
the Quarterly, that the seeds of the fungi enter the 
plant by the root, and are disposed to believe with 
Sir Joseph Banks, that the seeds of the rust-fungus 
get into the plant by the pores of the leaves and stem. 
And we will offer some reasons for this belief. 1. 
The prevalence of rust depends much upon the tem¬ 
perature and humidity of the season when it prevails. 
If the season is moist and hot, and the atmosphere 
calm, this disease most abounds. On the contrary, 
if it is cool and dry, and northern winds prevail, we 
see very little of it. 2. The prevalence of rust de¬ 
pends much on exposure and luxuriance of growth. 
If the field is much sheltered from drying winds, the 
air in a measure stagnant, or the growth of straw luxu¬ 
riant, as on the site of dung heaps, the rust-fungus is 
pretty certain to appear; but it seldom shows itself in 
open exposures, where the growth of the straw is 
moderate, or has not been stimulated by recent or 
too abundant manures, except the season is hot and 
humid. Upon M. Fee’s theory, all seasons and all 
soils would produce it alike, provided the soils were 
once impregnated with the seeds. Its appearance 
only in certain seasons and in certain locations, can 
readily he explained on Sir Joseph Banks’ theory. 
In the seasons and locations in which rust is most 
prevalent, the atmosphere is comparatively light and 
stagnant, and the epidermis of the grain soft, spongy 
and moist. Now assuming what M. Fee asserts, and 
we have no reason to doubt his correctness, that the 
seeds of the rust-fungus are as subtle as smoke* they 
might readily be wafted by this light atmosphere to 
the leaves and stems of the grain, which would be in 
an excellent condition, under such circumstances, to 
receive and nurture them. But when the atmosphere 
is dry, and the air in brisk circulation, its specific gra¬ 
vity is too heavy for these seeds to float in it, and the 
leaves and stems of the grain are less fitted for its 
reception. When the atmosphere is light, smoke 
lingers upon the earth’s surface ; when it is dry and 
heavy, smoke immediately rises to the upper regions. 
If our views are correct, liming, or even paring 
and burning, would effect little towards the preven¬ 
tion of rust and mildew. The best preventives, in 
our opinion, are, to apply the manure intended for 
wheat, to a previous hoed crop, that the heat of fer¬ 
mentation, which causes a strong and protracted 
growth of straw, may have subsided ; and to sow up¬ 
on dry grounds, or if flat and retentive, to lay the 
land in ridges, that all surplus water may readily 
drain off. These precautions, added to clean and 
thorough tillage, we think, will be as efficacious as 
paring and burning. Liming wheat lands, we have 
no doubt, is beneficial in many respects ; but that it 
will prevent rust, we have no facts before us that will 
justify us in asserting. 
Ox Gearing. 
The communications which we have heretofore 
published, from Mr. Allison and Mr. Woodruff, on the 
subject of ox gearing, have given an interest to the 
subject, which we trust may lead to some improve¬ 
ment in the matter. We feel assured, that the com¬ 
mon mode of gearing oxen is a bad one, and that it 
may be modified with advantage to the animal and 
his master. 
The Spanish mode of gearing seems to be the same 
as that practised in Portugal, and strongly recom¬ 
mended by Lord Somerville. The principle of draught 
depends, his lordship justly observes, on the joint 
power of the neck and base of the horns. The Por¬ 
tuguese, or Spanish mode, has been successfully tried 
in Ireland, by Lord Shannon, who found, that har¬ 
nessed in this way, two oxen were able to draw, with 
great ease, three tons in weight. 
We have deemed this matter of sufficient impor¬ 
tance, to procure a cut to he made, representing the 
Spanish or Portuguese mode of gearing oxen, which 
we give below. We hope this may induce a fair trial 
by some of our spirited farmers ; and if it should do 
so, we shall be very happy to be apprised of the re¬ 
sult. 
[Fig. No. 51.] 
Successful Mode of Preserving Milk at Sea. 
In November, 1836, a part of the conductor’s fa¬ 
mily being about to sail for Europe, a dozen bottles 
of milk were prepared for their use, in the following 
way: The milk was drawn from the cows immedi¬ 
ately into the bottles, the bottles well corked, and 
the corks secured with wire. The bottles were then 
laid into a kettle, upon some straw, the kettle filled 
with cold water, and the water heated to the boiling 
point. The milk was used on the passage, perfectly 
sweet, except one bottle, which lay in a chest unno¬ 
ticed till it reached Ireland, and it was then found to 
be as sweet as when it was bottled at Albany. 
A Convention of Farmers, 
To wit: two from Connecticut, one from Georgia, 
one from the District of Columbia, two from New- 
Jersey, fourteen from the state of New-York, three 
from Massachusetts, two from Vermont, two from 
Ohio, one from Virginia, two from Pennsylvania, one 
from Upper Canada, one from Maryland, and one 
from Michigan, together with the conductor of the 
Cultivator, in all thirty-five individuals, met in Alba¬ 
ny in May last, for mutual instruction in the business 
of husbandry,—to communicate and obtain useful in¬ 
formation in their business. The meeting was one 
of great interest, and many facts were detailed, cal¬ 
culated to benefit each individual member, and to ad¬ 
vance the public interest. It affords us pleasure to 
add, that like meetings have been, and will continue 
to be held monthly, and that some twenty thousand 
readers are receiving benefit from these monthly de¬ 
liberations. Now, reader, all this is matter of fact, 
save that the individuals did not appear in person, but 
sent to the conductor their information and inquiries 
by letters, which were faithfully recorded in our June 
number. And is the information less valuable, by be¬ 
ing written with care, and printed, so that it may be 
preserved and referred to, than it would have been ;t 
delivered by word of mouth, and liable to he forgot¬ 
ten and lost? We think not. We invite farmers 
then to profit by this concentrated knowledge ol their 
brother laborers, by becoming patrons to the Culti¬ 
vator, which promulgates it, almost without money 
and without price. 
What is Book Farming ? 
The editor of the Quarterly Journal answers the 
question as follows : 
“Book farming, we know, is not in favor with formers, 
otherwise we should find admittance into every farmer's libra¬ 
ry,-and every farmer [in Scotland] has a library. But al¬ 
though we know, and therefore admit, that no man can be 
made a farmer by book, we cannot admit that the best farmer 
cannot, may not, at a time, find useful hints in a book.— 
The best farmer cannot know every article of practice which 
is followed in every part of the country; and as most practi¬ 
ces are discovered by what is called chance or accident, it is 
clear that the discovery cannot generally be made known un¬ 
til it is disseminated abroad. A farmer who travels, appreci¬ 
ates the information which he receives in conversation with 
farmers, and by observation of field labor. Such a farmer 
possesses advantages over him who always remains at home, 
that is, within the circle of his markets. Now the object id an 
agricultural book, and particularly of an agricultural periodi¬ 
cal work, is, at stated times, to carry hints, suggestions or dis¬ 
coveries, important or unimportant, to the home of the farmer, 
that he who loves to stay at home may possess the advanta¬ 
ges of him who at times travels abroad, and that he who tra¬ 
vels abroad may compare what he has seen with what he 
reads, and decide which practice is best suited to his parti¬ 
cular purpose; or perhaps when comparing the hint3 of 
others, he may himself discover a practice superior to them 
all. In this manner a good agricultural work is the means of 
disseminating through the country practices which would be 
confined to the district which gave them birth. Its principal 
aim should be to be a good work, that is, replete with sug¬ 
gestions of good sense, and with confirmations of experience. 
The collection and presentation of these desiderata, is attend¬ 
ed with much trouble and expense, and unless the labor is 
appreciated and encouraged, it is impossible to use the moans 
to collect the most valuable kind of information for presenta 
tion.” _____, 
The Fair of the American Institute, 
It will be remembered, commences at Niblo’s gar- 
den, New-York, on the 15th inst. and will probably 
continue ten days or more. These fairs have done 
much to call forth and to publish, the inventive ge¬ 
nius and skill of our countrymen, and to excite indus¬ 
try and emulation in the productive classes of the 
community. They deserve the countenance and sup¬ 
port of every well wisher to the prosperity and inde¬ 
pendence of our country, and we trust they will com¬ 
mand them. 
Braining averts the effects of Drought. 
That is, we mean to say, that grounds naturally wet, 
suffer more severely from drought before, than they do 
after , being thoroughly drained. The presence of 
standing water on a soil, even for a short time, tends 
to render it close and compact; and when the water 
evaporates or subsides, it becomes baked and very 
hard. On the other hand, if water merely passes 
through a soil, as it does where the subsoil is porous, 
or where there are sufficient under-drains to receive 
and convey it off, the earth remains light and pervi¬ 
ous to the beneficent influences of heat, air and dew, 
from above, and to the capillary attraction of mois¬ 
ture from below,—a highly beneficial process to the 
crop, and the advantages of which depend much upon 
the porous condition of the surface stratum; and this 
in turn, as we have observed, is most porous where 
there is a ready outlet for all excess of water. In a 
field, last year, we lost nearly an acre of potatoes, on 
the slopes of a ravine, the soil being wet in the 
spring upon, and later under the surface. The water 
was partly from the surface, and had settled down 
upon an impervious stratum, and partly from spouts, 
which apparently rose from below the impervious stra¬ 
tum ; it found egress on the slope of the ravine, or at its 
base, and saturated the whole soil to extreme wet¬ 
ness in spring. But when the season became dry, 
and the sources of supply in a measure exhausted, the 
surface soil became almost as hard as a brick-bat. 
In the fall, we constructed under-drains, with tile, so 
as to catch and convey off the water, before it catne 
within two feet of the surface, and planted the ground 
with corn the present season. The crop upon these 
strips looks as well as in other parts of the field, has 
received no injury from drought, as the soil, instead 
of being hard baked, as it was last year, is compara¬ 
tively loose and porous. 
Under-draining becomes more and more requisite 
upon flat or impervious soils, as they are subject¬ 
ed to culture. New lands abound greatly in vegeta¬ 
ble and ligneous matter, which impart a comparative 
lightness and porosity even to stiff clays. But as 
these lands are subjected to tillage, and the exhaust¬ 
ing influence of crops, the vegetable matter dimini¬ 
shes, and the soil itself becomes more compact and 
adhesive, according to the good or had husbandry 
which is adopted upon it. We know of a district in 
