164 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
How is lime procured from these minerals ? 
Carbonate of lime, by whatever name it is called, 
whether chalk, marble, limestone, oyster shell, &c. is 
broken into convenient pieces, and piled in alternate 
layers, with coal, furze or other fuel, in proper kilns, 
where it is kept for a considerable time in a white heat. 
By this means, the carbonic acid and water are driven 
off, and tolerably pure lime is the product.* * * * § 
What are the chief uses of lime ? 
Lime united with the acids is applied to various use¬ 
ful purposes, and next to silica, forms a material portion 
of the solid fabric of the terrestrial globe. In its pure 
state, it is used in many of the arts,! particularly in 
making mortar for buildings. It is employed by the 
farmers as a manure; also by bleachers, tanners, sugar 
bakers, soap-boilers, iron masters,! and others, in their 
several manufactories, and in medicine. 
How do you explain the operation of lime in forming 
mortar ? 
Pure lime has, when united to a certain portion of 
water, a very strong affinity for silica, another most es¬ 
sential ingredient in all mortar and cements; for without 
this it never hardens—but when mixed in proper pro¬ 
portions, the gradual absorption of carbonic acid from 
the atmosphere occasions it in a series of years to become 
as hard as unburnt limestone.§ 
How does lime act so as to be of use as a manure for 
land ? 
The use of lime in agriculture may be attributed to 
the property which it possesses of hastening the dissolu¬ 
tion and putrefaction of all animal and vegetable matter, || 
and of imparting to the soil a power of retaining a quan¬ 
tity of moisture necessary for the nourishment and vig¬ 
orous growth of the plants, corn, &c.V for there is no 
good soil that does not contain a certain portion of lime, 
though always, without exception, combined with car¬ 
bonic acid. 
What is the use of lime in the operation of tanning 
leather ? 
Lime is used by the tanner in a state of solution; in 
• this the hides are immersed in order to dissolve the ge¬ 
latinous part of the skin, and to facilitate the removal 
of the hair.** 
the formation of its bones. Part of the albumen combines with 
the shell for this purpose, and another portion forms feathets. 
One thousand parts of egg shells are composed of 
Carbonate of lime,. 896 
Phosphate of lime,. 57 
Gluten and moisture,. 47 
1000 
If fowls are kept in a state of confinement, where they can¬ 
not get at any calcareous earth, they lay their eggs without 
shells. 
* Bishop Watson found by experiment, that upon an ave¬ 
rage, every ton of limestone produced 11 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lbs. of 
quick-lime, weighed before it was cold; and that when expos¬ 
ed to the air it increased in weight daily, at the rate of a hun¬ 
dred weight per ton lor the first five or six days after it was 
drawn from the kiln. This fact is worth the notice of those 
farmers who fetch their lime Irom great distances. 
f Lime is used in the manufacture of glue. The design of 
it is to prevent its becoming flexible by the absorption of mois¬ 
ture, and to add to its strength. Some persons use alum for 
the same purposes. 
+ The iron ores that are wrought in this country, contain a 
large portion of alumina, and silica: in order, therefore, to flux 
these earths, and more effectually separate the iron, a quanti¬ 
ty of lime is usually mixed with the ore in the furnace; lime 
having the property of rendering the other earths more fusi¬ 
ble. 
§ When lime is made into mortar, it takes a long time in 
acquiring the portion of carbonic acid which it possessed in 
the quarry; but the mortar hardens as this absorption takes 
place. This accounts for the great strength of some ancient 
buildings, in which the mortar is found to have a greater de¬ 
gree of firmness than even limestone itself. 
The nature of the sand which is mixed with lime to form 
mortar or cement, is of the inmost, consequence; tlie harder 
and sharper the sand, the better, for if this matter be of a fria¬ 
ble nature like chalk, the mortar must be weak. 
|| When quick-lime is spread upon arable land, it destroys 
by its causticity the organization of all animal and vegetable 
matters remaining in the soil, and thus renders them a fit pa¬ 
bulum for the future crop. In like manner the lime would 
also burn up the tender shoois of the fresh plants, and steri¬ 
lize instead of fructifying the ground ; but Nature has so order¬ 
ed it, that, as the lime falls to powder upon the land it should 
gradually absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere, which de¬ 
prives it of its causticity and converts it into chalk. 
<|j Hence lime and chalk are found to be particularly useful 
on sandy soils. Marl is a mixture of carbonate of lime and 
clay. See additional notes, No. 20. Marls are useful in ag¬ 
riculture only in proportion to the calcareous earth they con¬ 
tain. Unless they contain more than 30 per cent of lime, they 
are of no value to the farmer. Of all the modes of trial, the 
one best suited to the unlearned farmer, is, to observe how 
muchykrerf air the marl gives out; and this he will learn by 
dissolving a little of it in diluted muriatic acid, and observing 
what portion of its weight it loses by the escape of this air. 
Thus, if an ounce loses only from 40 to 44 grains, he may 
conclude that the ounce of marl contained only 100 grains ot 
calcareous earth, and that it would be his interest to pay seven 
limes as much for a load of lime as lie must pay for a load of 
marl at the same distance. 
Every farmer should ascertain the nature of his lime be¬ 
fore he uses it in agriculture, as there are many extensive dis¬ 
tricts in England where the lime contains magnesia, which 
renders it injurious to the growth of vegetables. 
**The theory of tanning is shortly this : After the impurities 
of the skins are removed, they are steeped in an infusion of 
oak-bark, which consists of two distinct substances, viz. the 
gallic acid, and the tanning principle ; the latter of these com¬ 
bines chemically with the gelatine and albumen of the skins, 
and forms leather. 
How is lime used in refining sugar? 
By boiling the sugar in lime-water the manufacturer 
deprives it of a certain uncombined acid,* which pre¬ 
vents its crystallization. 
What is the use of lime in the manufacture of soap ? 
Lime is mixed with the alkali in order to deprive it 
of carbonic acid. The alkali is thus rendered what is 
called caustic, and by this means is fitted to combine 
with the oil or tallow which is thereby converted into 
soap. 
We have hitherto spoken only of lime and of carbonate 
of lime:—Is lime found in any other state of combina¬ 
tion ? 
Yes: lime occurs in combination with sulphuric acid 
forming gypsum;f with the fluoric acid constituting 
fluor spar ;! with the phosphoric acid in a mineral call¬ 
ed apatite,' § and in some precious stones. 
What is magnesia? 
Magnesia is a very soft, white light earth, with lit¬ 
tle taste or smell; unalterable in the fire, and almost in¬ 
soluble in water. Nevertheless it absorbs a considera¬ 
ble portion of water when that fluid is poured upon it, 
and heat is evolved. It dissolves in alkaline carbonates, 
but is not soluble in the caustic alkalies. 
How is magnesia procured ? 
Magnesia is never found in a state of purity, but al¬ 
ways in combination with some acid. It is generally pro¬ 
cured from sulphate of magnesia,|| which exists with 
the muriate of this earth in sca-water, and in many 
springs. Magnesia is also a component part of several 
minerals. 
What are the uses of magnesia ? 
Pure magnesia, as well as the sulphate and carbonate, 
has important uses in medicineV It is also required in 
some chemical processes, and is employed by the manu¬ 
facturers of enamels and procelain. Calcined magnesia 
is also the most effectual antidote in case of poison by the 
mineral acids. 
We have spoken of each of the earths separately, but 
are there not instances in nature of the earths entering 
into combination with each other ? 
Yes: minerals are found in every part of the world, 
in which the earths are combined in differentproportions 
by processes unknown to us, which nature employs to 
produce that endless variety of what, in common lan¬ 
guage, we call rocks, stones, gems,**&c. 
Is the design of Nature in forming so many distinct 
earths very apparent ? 
The earths* have several properties in common; yet 
as every earth possesses different and specific properties, 
it is evident that Nature designed them for different and 
distinct purposes of utility. 
You have enumerated the separate uses of most of the 
earths:—Can you recollect the collective advantages ichich 
arise from this class of bodies? 
The uses of some of these earths are not yet disco- 
covered ; hut the benefits which we derive from lime, 
clay, silica, and magnesia, are very various and impor¬ 
tant. 
In order to impress your memory, and to finish the con¬ 
sideration of this class of bodies, endeavour to recollect 
some of the more important uses of those earths with which 
you are best acquainted. 
Lime, then, has an extensive and important use in 
agriculture ;f| it is employed in building, &c. and adds 
* Lime is frequently used by chemists in processes where 
there is a superabundant and injurious quantity of acid. The 
lime seizes the acid, and frees the solution from it, by form¬ 
ing with it a neutral salt. 
| Gypsum, or, as it is also called, selenite or sulphate of 
lime when crystallized, is composed of about 33 lime, 46 parts 
of sulphuric acid, and 21 water. 
+ Lime combined with the fluoric acid forms those beauti¬ 
ful fluor spars which are brought from the mines of Derbyshire. 
The most usual colour of this mineral is that of a deep purple; 
but by exposing it to the rays of a hot sun, or to different de¬ 
grees of artificial temperature, the artist has found the means 
of forming a suit of colours of great variety and beauty. 
§ The bones of all kinds of animals are formed of lime and 
phosphoric acid in the proportion of 48.5 parts of that earth 
and 51.5 of phosphoric acid. 
|| Sulphate of magnesia (the Epsom salt of commerce) is 
found in several mineral waters. The bitter saline waters ge¬ 
nerally owe their taste io this salt. That which is found in 
the shops is generally procured from the mothers which re¬ 
main after the separation of common salts from sea-w ater, by 
subsequent evaporation and crystallization. All the salts 
formed with this earth are bitter, and generally very soluble. 
5f When magnesia is taken as an aperient, it ought to be in 
the state of carbonate of magnesia, or what is called mild 
magnesia. When as an absorbent to correct acidities, calcin¬ 
ed or caustic magnesia is most proper. On several accounts 
it is of consequence to attend to this distinction. 
’’Potter's clay is a mixture chiefly of silica and alumina ; 
the colouring eaiths used as pigments are mixtures either of 
clay and the oxides of iron, or clay and charcoal; garden 
mould is a mixture extremely various, sometimes containing 
silica, alumina, magnesia, iron, lime, and carbon ; the com¬ 
mon miil-stone is generally composed of alumina and silica ; 
and the crumbling sandstone is a mixture of iron and silica : 
it is, however impossible to enumerate the endless diversity 
of substances which Nature offers ready formed for the use of 
man ; for the mixtures of the earths which are found 7iaturally 
combined comprehend most of the varieties of clay, slates, 
stones, gems, rocks, crystals, zeolites, quartz, flints, &c. 
“tf The goodness ofa soil depends upon its being able to re¬ 
tain the quantity of moisture which is proper for the nourish¬ 
ment of vegetables, and no more. Now the retentive power 
of a soil increases with the proportion of its alumina, lime, 
or magnesia ; and diminishes as the proportion of its silica 
increases.” 
much both to the neatness and durability of our dwell¬ 
ings. Silica is the basis of all mortar and cements, and 
is a necessary ingredient in earthen-ware, porcelain, and 
glass. Barytes is employed in chemical laboratories 
as a re-agent. Magnesia, besides being the basis of 
several salts, is of great use in medicine; and Alumina, 
by a due mixture with silica, is capable of forming ves¬ 
sels for chemists that will resist the action of the most 
concentrated acids; it is the material of which the bricks 
are formed which construct the walls of our habitations, 
and it is also spread out by the great Author of nature in 
strata within our hills and mountains, to arrest the pro¬ 
gress of subterraneous waters, and to produce those 
springs that fertilize the valleys, and which take such 
diversified courses upon the surface of the globe. 
0= Farmers’ Directory. C £J 
f|C|=- We receive almost daily inquiries for seeds, im¬ 
plements, farm stock, &c. many of which it is difficult, 
and some of them out of our power, to answer satisfac¬ 
torily. The expense of making and answering these 
inquiries amounts to no little in the aggregate. To re¬ 
medy this inconvenience, and to render a service to the 
seller and buyer, we propose to insert in the extra which 
will accompany our February number, a Farmers’ Di¬ 
rectory, that is, to give the names, residence and busi¬ 
ness, so far as they shall be notified to us by the 10th 
January, free of charge, of gentlemen engaged in vend¬ 
ing agricultural seeds, implements, and choice breeds of 
farm stock, in whatever state they may reside. As for 
example, 
W. Thorburn, Albany, vends seeds and implements. 
H. D. Grove, Buskirk’s Bridge, Washington co. N. Y. 
will sell 100 Saxony sheep. 
G. B. Smith, Baltimore, Md. sells Rohan Potatoes and 
Dutton seed corn. 
To the patrons of the Cultivator, no Charge will be 
made for this notice—to others, it wili be one dollar. 
Advertisements, more in detail, will be inserted in a se¬ 
parate portion of the same sheet, on our usual terms. 
The advantages that are likely to result to advertisers, 
may be judged from the fact, that our edition is twenty 
thousand copies, and that our paper circulates in every 
state and territory in the Union, and in the Canadas. 
Moneys received during the last month, in sums of five dollars 
and over. The total receipts are included from post-offices 
marked with an asterisk .* 
No. Vols. 
* Alexandria, 
D. C. 
63 
’Auburn’ Cay. 
13 
’Buffalo, Erie. 
14 
Benlon, Yates. 
15 
*Binghamton, Br. 
2i) 
* Boston, 
Mass. 129 
Coldenhara, Or. 
5 
Columbus, 
Geo. 
9 
'Dundas, 
L. C. 
31 
"Dedham, 
Mass. 
43 
E Long Meadow, 
U 
A, 
U 
’Flushing, Qu. 
21 
Frederica, 
Del. 
9 
Hickory Ground, 
Va. 
It 
’Hudson, Col. 
23 
*Lansingburgh, Renss. 
14 
♦Lovington, 
Va 
28 
’Morristown, 
N. J. 
16 
Macon, 
Geo. 
A. 
Middletown, 
No. Vols. 
O. 32 
'Montreal, 
L. C. 26 
*New-York city, 
170 
Newberry, 
S. C. 12 
*Orange, C. H. 
Va. 34 
’Petersburgh, 
Geo. 43 
’Plattsburgh, Clin. 
13 
^Richmond, 
Rock City, 
Va. 139 
Ala. 6 
Swedesboro, 
N. J. 6 
Sherbrook, 
L. C. 6 
"Uniontown, 
Md. 23 
Union, 
Vt. 5 
'Utica, Oneida, 
70 
Verona, “ 
22 
'Woodstock, 
Vt. 17 
*Walkertown. 
Va. 32 
Winchester Centre, 
Ct. 11 
FROM THE STEAM PRESS OF 
PACKARD, VAN BENTHUYSEN & Co, 
