THE CULTIVATOR. 
ISO 
<a. . .— . ■ -- — —- 
How is it that marine plants give out soda , while 
those which grow in the interior of the country afford 
potash ! 
This has been accounted for by supposing that 
these marine vegetables have the power, during ve¬ 
getation, of decomposing sea-salt, and retaining the 
soda in their constitution. 
Is soda found in any other state 1 
Soda combined with carbonic acid is found in great 
plenty in the natron beds of Egypt,* * * * § * and in the East 
Indies: it occurs also in various other parts of the 
world, though never in a state of purity, and enters 
into the composition of the sodalite and of several 
other minerals.! 
What are the distinguishing properties of these two 
alkalies ? 
The fixed alkalies are very similar in their general 
properties ; but are easily distinguished by the variety 
of salts which they form with the acids ; and by pot¬ 
ash being more deliquescent than soda. 
Is there any chemical test by which you can distin¬ 
guish these two alkalies ! 
There are many; but a solution of the ore of pla- 
tina in nitro-muriatic acid will answer this purpose 
most completely. 
What are the chief uses of these alkalies ! 
The fixed alkalies have various uses in surgery and 
medicine: they are the bases of several salts; are 
employed much in the arts and are of great im¬ 
portance to the analytical chemist. 
How are the fixed alkalies employed in the arts ! 
The fixed alkalies are used in large quantities by 
the glass-maker,§ the dyer, the soap-maker, the co¬ 
lour-maker, and by various other manufacturers. 
In a former chapter , we noticed the use of fixed alkali 
in making glass :— What is the use of it to the dyer ? 
The alkalies are known to have the property of 
Most of the peasantry in the Shetland Isles, and in the 
Highlands of Scotland, are supported by collecting sea-weeds, 
and burning them into Kelp, an article which produces great 
revenues to the lairds of those districts. Many of the wretch¬ 
ed inhabitants of those dreary regions have nothing to depend 
upon for subsistence, but a miserable pittance, which they 
acquire in this employment. 
* The natron lakes of Egypt annually produce a large 
quantity of mineral alkali. In summer, the water of these 
lakes is evaporated by the sun, which leaves a bed of natron 
generally two feet thick; and this is broken up by wedges, 
and packed for the European markets. 
f Soda is one of the substances found in the bile of ani¬ 
mals. Whenever this alkali occurs native, it is always in a 
mild state; and as it cannot combine with oils to form soap, 
unless it be caustic, this causticity is given it for these manu¬ 
factories by artificial means. It is worthy of remark, that 
Nature has furnished the bile with soda in a state of causticity, 
which gives it the property of combining with and saponify¬ 
ing the fat or oily substances taken into the stomach, and 
rendering them soluble in the other animal fluids. What ac¬ 
count can be given of this deviation from the usual course of 
nature, but the important purpose w’hich it serves in the ani¬ 
mal economy ? 
f The greatest consumption of the fixed alkalies in this 
country is in the manufacture of soap. They are also largely 
employed in bleaching, and in the manufacture of glass. So¬ 
da and potash are also both used in washing, and for other 
domestic purposes; as they powerfully unite with all greasy 
substances, which they render soluble in water. 
§ It is curious to observe, that the alkalies combine with 
transparent olive oil, and produce opake soap; and that they 
unite with opake sand to form transparent glass. How vari¬ 
ous are the properties that have been impressed upon those 
primary materials of the universe, that were intrusted to man 
for the promotion of his convenience and comfort 1 
|| To make soap, it is necessary to employ a fixed alkali 
in a caustic state. In this country, the business is usually 
conducted in the following manner; Spanish barilla or Scotch 
kelp is broken in pieces, or coarsely ground by a horse mill: 
and, when mixed with a sufficient quantity of quick-lime to 
absorb the carbonic acid, the whole is thrown into large wood¬ 
en or iron vats, and covered with water. In great works, 
these vats are generally of cast iron, and sufficiently capacious 
to hold three or four tons of alkaline ashes. At a proper time, 
the water, impregnated with the caustic alkali, is let off into 
iron receivers below, and the vats are covered again with wa¬ 
ter, which, after standing a sufficient time, islet off as before. 
This liquor is called soap-boilers’ lie. When a sufficient 
quantity of this is prepared, Russian or English tallow' is put 
into a large iron boiler, and melted with a portion of the above- 
mentioned alkaline lie. At first, the tallow appears liquid 
like oil, but during its boiling it acquires by degrees consis¬ 
tence as it saponifies. When the alkali is uniformly combined 
with.the tallow, the weak liquor is pumped from beneath the 
soap, and fresh lies are added in their stead. These are boil¬ 
ed as before, till the soap exhibits certain appearances well 
known to the manufacturer; it is then cooled down, and pour¬ 
ed into deep wooden frames, 15 inches wide and 45 inches 
long; where it remains till it has acquired a sufficient degree 
of solidity to be cut up for sale. It is the alkali which gives 
soap i's detergent quality, and which renders it soluble in 
water. The tallow serves to moderate the sharpness of the 
alkali, and to prevent its injuring the hands of those who use 
it. 
In making yellow soap, resin is used in the proportion of 
about one part to three or four parts of tallow. The resin 
makes the soap more detersive, and enables the manufacturer 
to sell it cheaper. Common fish oil, when its price permits, 
is also used in yellow soap. 
Potash is the alkali used for soft soap, the manufacture of 
which is a distinct and separate trade in this country. A so¬ 
lution of this alkali in a caustic state is boiled with fish oil; 
and when the oil is sufficiently saponified, and a complete 
union of the materials formed, the whole is poured into small 
casks for sale; the water having combined with the oil as well 
as the alkali. 
altering the hue of most colours; they are therefore 
employed with this view by the persons who are en¬ 
gaged in this trade. 
Why are the alkalies employed in making soap ? 
An alkali is an essential ingredient in soap, as it is 
the only article capable of converting tallow or oil in¬ 
to a saponaceous substance, and enabling it to com¬ 
bine with water.* 
Why are fixed alkalies employed in making colours ! 
Many colours are now manufactured in this coun¬ 
try which cannot be made without an alkali: thus, 
animal matters are always incinerated with an alkali 
to form Prussian blue; a fixed alkali is also employed 
as a flux in the formation of the potter’s blue from 
cobalt; and what are called French and mineral 
greens are made by precipitating copper from its so¬ 
lutions by means of these alkalies. 
What are the other uses of these alkalies ! 
They are employed in making alum; in bleaching 
linen; in scouring wool; and in many other proces¬ 
ses too various to be enumerated. 
From whence is this country supplied with these arti¬ 
cles' 1 
The greatest part of the potash used in this coun¬ 
try comes from America and Russia ; but the kelp of 
our own coasts, and the barilla of Spain and of the 
islands of Teneriffe and Sicily, furnish us with most 
f our mineral alkalies. 
Are these alkalies sold in a stale of purity ! 
No : both potash and soda always contain carbonic 
acid* and water; and are often contaminated with 
earths, sulphur, and other impurities. 
Have alkalies any peculiar affinity for sulphur ! 
Both potash and soda, as well as ammonia, have a 
strong affinity for sulphur ; they combine by tritura¬ 
tion or heat, and form sutphuret of alkali, formerly 
called hepar sulphuris, or “liver of sulphur.” 
What is the nature of sulphurel of alkali ? 
Its colour is similar to that of the liver of animals ; 
its taste is acrid and bitter; and it has the property 
ol decomposing water. 
How are the alkalies of commerce purified for the use 
of the chemist or manufacturer'! 
Potash or soda is generally mixed with a portion of 
quick-lime to divest it of carbonic acid, and then lixi¬ 
viated in proper vessels to obtain a solution of the 
caustic alkali, free from other impurities. When it 
is required perfectly pure for nice purposes, the alkali is 
dissolved in alcohol, and purified by a peculiar process. 
Are the fixed alkalies ever used in a state of combina¬ 
tion with carbonic acid ! 
Carbonic acid gives potash and soda the property 
of crystallizing readily; it also renders them mild, 
and fit for purposes in which caustic alkali would be 
improper; hence carbonate of potash is employed in 
medicine, and carbonate of soda for washing and oth¬ 
er domestic uses. 
What is the chemical name of the volatile alkali ? 
It is called ammonia. 
What are the properties of ammonia ! 
Ammonia when uncombined with water, or any 
other substance, exists in the state of gas, and is then 
so extremely volatile as to exhale at all known tem¬ 
peratures. Its volatility is diminished in some degree 
by combination with water, still more so by combin¬ 
ing with carbonic acid, and most when combined with 
the mineral acids. In the gaseous state it has a re¬ 
markably pungent smell, it instantly extinguishes 
flame, and would be fatal to any animals that were 
obliged to breathe it. It is lighter than atmospheric 
air in the proportion of 6 to 10. 
As this alkali is a gaseous substance, how can it be 
applied in the arts ! 
Ammonia has an affinity for water, with which it 
readily combines, and forms liquid ammonia; in which 
state it is generally used. 
What is the composition of ammonia ! 
Ammonia is a compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, 
in the proportion of about one part of the former, and 
four parts of the latter, when calculated by weight, 
or of one measure of nitrogen and three of hydrogen 
if calculated by volume. 
Is this alkali capable of being decomposed 1 
Yes ; ammonia may be decomposed by the electric 
spark. Oxygen gas will also decompose it by the as¬ 
sistance of heat, and then nitrous acid and water will 
be the results. If passed over red-hot charcoal, it will 
combine with part of the charcoal, and form prussic 
acid. 
What is the effect of galvanism on ammonia ! 
A very different result may be obtained if ammo¬ 
nia be decomposed in contact with mercury, by means 
of galvanism ; for in this case a metallic substance of 
a very uncommon nature may be separated from this 
alkali. 
How is ammonia procured ! 
All animal and vegetable substances, when in a 
state of putrefaction, will furnish ammonia: this al¬ 
* The potash and soda of commerce contain nearly one-fifth 
of their weight of carbonic acid, beside lime, silica, and other 
impurities. 
kali is, however, generally procured in England by a 
dry distillation of bones, horns, and other animal sub¬ 
stances. 
What are the uses of ammonia ! 
In a liquid state ammonia has various uses in our 
manufactories, and in medicine; it is a valuable re¬ 
agent to the chemist; and when combined with car¬ 
bonic acid it takes a concrete form and beautiful white 
colour, being then the article known in commerce by 
the name of volatile salts. 
Are there any other uses to which ammonia is applied ! 
Ammonia is serviceable in dyeing, and in staining 
ivory; but its principal use is in making the muriate 
of ammonia, of which it is the basis. 
How is ammonia formed into muriate of ammonia! 
Muriate of ammonia is formed by combining ammo¬ 
nia with muriatic acid. It is known in commerce by 
the name of sal-ammoniac. 
Muriate of ammonia being formed by two gaseous 
substances , how does it acquire solidity ! 
It may appear surprising that the union of two 
gases should produce a hard ponderous body ; but 
this may be attributed to their loss of caloric. The 
bases of these gases having a greater affinity for each 
other than they have for caloric, they combine inti¬ 
mately whenever they come in contact; and the com¬ 
pound having less occasion for caloric than the sepa¬ 
rate ingredients, the caloric is given out, and a solid 
is produced. 
What are the uses of sal-ammoniac ! 
Sal-ammoniac is employed in many of our manu¬ 
factories, particularly by dyers, to give a brightness 
to certain colours ; also by braziers, tin plate work¬ 
ers, and others ; and in medicine. 
From whence was sal-ammoniac procured before it 
was made in this country ! 
Sal-ammoniac was formerly brought from Egypt 
sufficient for the supply of all Europe; but it is now 
made in various parts of Great-Britain, particularly 
in Scotland, where it is formed by a peculiar process 
from soot; and also from a variety ol refuse animal 
matter. 
Is ammonia capable of entering into any other com¬ 
binations ! 
Yes: ammonia is capable of forming salts with most 
if not all of the acids. 
Can you recapitulate the origin of the different alkalies! 
The volatile alkali is procured from bones and other 
animal matters ; potash or vegetable alkali from the 
ashes of weeds and burnt wood : and soda or mineral 
alkali from the ashes of some marine plants, also from 
sea-salt or muriate of soda. 
What is the natural inference from a consideration 
of the nature and production of the alkalies ! 
The reflection which naturally arises from a consi¬ 
deration of this subject is, that the original organiza¬ 
tion of matter, whereby the effete recrementitious 
parts of animals and vegetables are made capable of 
producing useful and powerful substances, evinces, 
that infinite Power and Wisdom, united with con¬ 
summate Beneficence, can effect the most important 
changes, by the most unlikely agents; and can con¬ 
vert to valuable purposes, substances which to us ap¬ 
pear totally useless and inert. 
