182 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
3SS 
ascend up them and increase their size, instead of that 
of the stem ? If so, the weaker branches would soon 
become the stronger; or rather if trees have the pro¬ 
perty of sending the sap from the strong brandies to the 
weaker all the branches would be equally strong. The 
descending sap, on reaching the weaker branches would 
become ascending sap. And if the small branches be 
considered obstructions preventing the descent of the 
sap, the large branches must be greater obstructions. 
But where does the sap descend from ? Pruners forget, 
that they cannot cut a live spray from a tree without 
lessening the quantity of its leaves. Their theory is 
founded in error, and all their reasoning is false.”— Bal¬ 
lard, in Farm. Mag. 
This explains what often seems enigmatical to su¬ 
perficial observers in vegetable economy, viz. that 
moderate sized trees from a nursery, have ordinarily 
a much thriftier and healthier growth, and arrive 
sooner to a good bearing state, when transplanted, 
than trees that are very large. In the former, the 
natural proportion between the roots and the branches 
is preserved,—the former being taken up nearly en¬ 
tire—the sap vessels are filled, and the growth is but 
partially retarded. While in taking up very large 
trees, whose roots have greatly extended, the mouths 
of the plant are seriously diminished, the sap vessels 
contract and become indurated, in consequence of the 
diminished supply of sap—and the tree must acquire 
new roots, and a new sap-wood, by a slow process of 
growth, ere it can flourish with its accustomed vigor. 
The same evil results from cutting off the entire top 
of a tree. It is deprived of its elaborating organs; 
and although the root may send up the elements of 
food, they cannot benefit the plant for want of leaves to 
convert them into vegetable blood. It is no argument 
against this position, that deciduous trees spontane¬ 
ously develop foliage and flowers in the spring. There 
is a store of elaborated sap laid up in autumn to ef¬ 
fect this. Strip a tree in June, when this store is ex¬ 
hausted, entirely of its leaves, and the tree will not 
grow, and will probably die. The stem, at least, will 
sustain serious injury. The nurseryman knows, that 
after an apple, pear or plum stock has been cut down 
and grafted upon, the heart-wood becomes unsound if 
the graft fails to grow, and the whole stock dozy and 
in a manner worthless for a future scion, and that it will 
not grow a particle above where it sends off succors. 
The tendency of pruning to generate dis ase, and 
to shorten the life of trees, is illustrated in the ap¬ 
pearance of old orchards, which have been injudi¬ 
ciously pruned. Wherever a limb is split off by 
winds or accident, it exposes a diseased heart-wood; 
and this disease at the heart spreads to the roots and 
branches, and induces premature death. The natu¬ 
ral duration of the apple tree is believed to be more 
than one hundred years ; and yet how few are found 
in a healthy state at fifty years 1 Mark the contrast, 
in soundness of wood, in vigor of growth, and in du¬ 
ration of life, between the apple, and other frequently 
pruned trees, and those trees, whether fruit or forest, 
which are left to luxuriate naturally, without the arti¬ 
ficial aid of the pruning knife. 
If pruning be prejudicial to growth and longevity, 
why then, we may be asked-—why prune at all I We 
answer, for utility, to give beauty, and to improve and 
increase the fruit. 
In natural forest growth, trees attain height, and 
a straight clear timber form, from their crowded situ¬ 
ation ; and as the lower branches become useless they 
die and fall off. But in cultivated grounds, or where 
there is ample room for roots and branches to spread, 
this does not take place ; and hence the propriety of 
pruning here to obtain a good stem for timber, or a 
handsome top for shade and ornament. Often there 
are two or more leading shoots striving for the mas¬ 
tery, and unless they are shortened, or taken off there 
will be two or more stems, of diminutive size, instead 
of one stem, of larger size. We may therefore prune 
shade trees to improve their form, or to please the 
fancy, and timber trees to improve the bole ; but in 
neither case do we either increase the growth, or 
prolong the life of the tree. 
“As the twig is bent so will the tree incline,” is 
literally true in regard to pruning. We may give 
almost any form to trees which fancy may conceive, 
by beginning early, and persevering with the pruning 
knife or shears, as is witnessed in clipped hedges, and 
often in ornamental and garden grounds. We may 
make them dwarfs or standards, or give them a thin or 
dense foliage, at our pleasure. They may be trained 
or cut into the shape of animals, into geometrical 
forms, or architectural or sculptural compositions. 
We prune fruit trees to improve the fruit, and to 
induce a bearing habit. The roots of trees take up 
from the soil a certain quantity of vegetable food, call 
it geine, or humus, or organic remains, or what you 
please—it has constituted parts of vegetable structure, 
and is convertible, by natural processes, into wood or 
fruit, or both. If the tendency of the plant is to wood, 
as is generally the case with all healthy young trees, 
the fruit will be sparce and inferior, at least till the 
tree has attained to mature size. On the other hand, 
if the tendency to growth is checked, by poverty of 
soil, disease, or judicious pruning, the tree will be 
brought into a precocious state of bearing, and, in the 
case of judicious pruning, produce more and better 
fruit. 
In pruning or training to induce a fruit-bearing ha¬ 
bit, the object is to check the uninterrupted, and we 
may say natural, descent of the elaborated sap to the 
root, by encouraging a horizontal, instead of an up¬ 
right, growth of the branches, when the tree ap¬ 
proaches the bearing age. This causes a stricture 
in the descending sap vessels, at the bifurcation, or 
junction of the branches with the stem, and a conse¬ 
quent accumulation of elaborated sap in the branches, 
to generate fruit buds, and to swell the fruit, The 
same object is sometimes, though injudiciously, ef¬ 
fected, by taking out a narrow circle of bark, or by 
ligatures, to prevent the descent of the elaborated sap. 
Hence the upright shoot is often cut out, particularly 
in the apple tree, and the branches are trained hori¬ 
zontally, diagonally, or m a half inverted position, as 
on walls, espaliers, and in the en queneille, or distaff 
form of training. These operations have also a ten¬ 
dency to improve the quality of the fruit, by giving it 
a better exposure to the kind of influences of the sun, 
air and light, all essential to its due maturity and high 
flavor. Nature provides for the propagation of the 
species, by producing perfect seed, leaving to art the 
labor and contrivance of enlarging and enriching the 
pulp or fruit. All fruits may be improved from their 
natural state, by artificial culture, though nothing may 
be added thereby to the intrinsic value of the seed, or 
natural duration of the tree. The seeds of the wild 
crab, or wild pear, are as good to sow for stocks, to 
graft or bud upon, as the seeds of the cultivated va¬ 
rieties of these fruits; and indeed, according to Dr. 
Van Mons’ theory, which his practice seems to have 
confirmed, they are the best from which to start new 
varieties. 
Prune, therefore, when necessary, to improve tim¬ 
ber ; prune for ornament; prune to improve the fruit: 
but do not prune in the hope of accelerating growth 
or of prolonging life. And in all your prunings, cut 
while the wood is small, and spare to the tree all the 
loliage you can consistent with the object you have 
in view. By pruning when the tree is young, and 
pruning often, we may secure a handsome stem and 
well formed head, and we cause no wounds that do 
not speedily heal. 
The common practice is, to prune in autumn or 
spring, when the tree is divested of foliage. To this 
practice we make two objections. In the first place 
the wounds are exposed—unless covered with a suita¬ 
ble composition—to the searching and corroding in¬ 
fluence of the sun, wind and rain, there being no 
leaves to shield, nor circulating pulp to heal them. 
In the second place, it causes the multiplication of 
succors, and often increases the evil which it is de¬ 
signed to cure. The sap is arrested in the spring, 
when its flow is greatest, in its natural course to the 
amputated branches, oozes out and corrodes the bark 
and wood, or exhausts itself in the production of a 
prolific growth of succors, more detrimental than the 
parts that have been lopped off. If pruning is per¬ 
formed the last of June, when the exuberant flow of 
sap has abated, the wounds are in a measure pro¬ 
tected, by the foliage, from the weather; much un¬ 
elaborated has become elaborated sap, and transform¬ 
ed into cambium, or pulp, whose healing qualities soon 
cover the edges of the wound ; few or no succors are 
generated, and the heart of the tree is in a measure 
preserved from canker and decay. These opinions, 
as to the propriety of summer pruning fruit trees, have 
been confirmed, in our mind, by three years’ practice 
and observation. 
Another common error in pruning, is the practice 
of cutting all the lateral shoots from a young tree, 
except a few at the apex ; and to cut young, vigorous 
wood from the tops of old trees, leaving long extend¬ 
ed naked branches, which are often broken by the 
winds. In the first case, we obtain long spindling 
stems, incapable of supporting, when transplanted to 
an open situation, a respectable top. The same evil 
occurs in the nursery, or the forest, when the young 
trees stand in a crowded position. Ip the second 
case, we produce unsightly and comparatively unpro¬ 
ductive tops. Since the offices and importance of 
leaves in vegetable economy have been better under¬ 
stood, a manifest improvement in pruning has succeed¬ 
ed. It is now contended, and we think upon correct 
principles, that none, or but very few, of the lateral 
branches should be cut entirely from young trees, un¬ 
til the tree is tall enough to form a head ; but that 
the pruner should be content with shortening those 
which interfere with the main stem, and such as are 
of unreasonable length. By this means, we obtain a 
tapering, and straight stem, and retain the aid of a 
large portion of the leaves towards its enlargement. 
Every leaf contributes to the growth of the stem be¬ 
low the point of connexion. When the tree has at¬ 
tained a proper height to form the top, it is advisable, 
particularly with the apple, to cut out the upright 
shoot, leaving three, or at most four, laterals, or 
branches, upon different sides, to form the top. If a 
little attention is given annually to cutting out the 
small limbs, which are likely to cross or interfere with 
each other, the necessity of cutting off large branches 
will for a long time be superseded. In old trees, the 
old branches frequently become cankered and dis¬ 
eased, and young thrifty. wood is thrown out at 
or near their base. In this case it is always pre¬ 
ferable to cut the diseased wood, leaving the healthy 
shoots to fill their places. When transplanting trees, 
the knife should be used sparingly. If the roots are 
greatly diminished, in digging up the tree, the top 
may be lightened by thinning its branches ; or if none 
of these can be spared without marring the form, the 
longer branches may be shortened, or cut in, at a bud ; 
but we do not advise, in any case, the cutting off the 
entire top. 
New Grains. 
We have noticed in a cotemporary print, some re¬ 
marks tending to discourage a prevailing propensity 
in our farmers, to obtain new varieties of grain. This 
propensity, like that for the morus multicaulis, may 
be carried, it is true, to a ridiculous extravagance; 
and although new kinds may often prove worthless, 
in particular locations, or in general, yet the benefits 
which actually result to the community, from the in¬ 
troduction of new varieties of grain, are palpably 
great, and counterbalance all the losses that accrue 
from ignorance of the soil or climate to which they 
may be peculiarly adapted. All endeavors to per¬ 
petuate the good qualities of a breed of animals, by 
breeding wholly from the same family, termed breeding 
in-and-in, have entirely failed. Even the notable ex¬ 
ample of Bakewell does not seem to form an excep¬ 
tion to this remark: for though he succeeded for a 
time, his stock rapidly degenerated after his decease, 
unless where it was crossed with another breed. Va¬ 
rieties of fruits have their natural limits of extension, 
beyond which, we believe, human art cannot render 
them prolific and healthy. Whj should not varieties 
of grain and roots be subject to the same laws which 
go to deteriorate animals and fruits'! That they do, 
is evidenced by the facts, that most of the varieties 
which were in estimation forty years ago, have disap¬ 
peared from among us, and have been replaced by those 
which are comparatively new. This remark will ap¬ 
ply particularly to our potatoes and Indian corn, and 
in a great extent to our wheat. By change of soil 
and climate, the vigor of a variety may have been 
prolonged; but we doubt whether any variety has 
been cultivated forty years in the same place, with¬ 
out showing unequivocal evidence of deterioration and 
diminution of product. 
We beg the reader to observe the distinction we 
make between species and varieties. The better to 
illustrate the matter to the young reader, we may 
state, that under the Linnasan system, plants are di¬ 
vided into classes, orders, genera and species. Thus 
wheat (Triticum) is a genus of plants, belonging to 
the third class ( Triandria) and second order ( Dyge - 
nia) to which Loudon assigns 16 species, viz. summer 
wheat, Lammas, Egyptian, turged, Polish, spelt, one¬ 
grained, porcupine, rushy, couch grass, bearded, rigid, 
crested, maize-like and long-spiked. All other wheats 
are mere varieties, produced, naturally or artifically, 
by a cross of two species, and modified, more or less, 
by soil and climate. It is the varieties which deteri¬ 
orate, as we alledge. Varieties are multiplied where¬ 
ver two species, or two varieties, are grown conti¬ 
guous to each other—the pollen of one kind coming 
in contact with the pistil of another, invariably pro¬ 
ducing a progeny partaking of the qualities of both pa¬ 
rents, and yet not wholly like either. Hence the 
strange mixture in our wheat fields, some heads ripen¬ 
ing earlier and some later. The continued cultivation 
of a single variety is precisely like breeding in-and-in 
with a family of animals. It will deteriorate. 
We will cite another illustration. Indian corn 
{Zed) belongs to the twentieth class ( Moncecia ) and 
third order ( Triandria ) of Linnaeus. Loudon gives 
but two species, the common and Valparaiso cross 
corn; while other botanists give three or more—so 
that all our cultivated sorts of this grain are but va¬ 
rieties of probably the same species; and these varie¬ 
ties are continually multiplied in the way we have men¬ 
tioned. When we see white kernels upon the stock 
of a yellow kerneled variety, caused by the impregna¬ 
tion of the silk by the pollen from a white kerneled 
stock, these white kernels are not like the vyhite ker¬ 
neled or male parent, as their appearance indicates, 
but they are a new variety, partaking of the quality 
of both parents; and if planted, this will be apparent 
in the progeny or product. 
From the foregoing considerations—and from the 
well known fact, that most of the estimable varieties 
of grain now cultivated, are comparatively new, and 
have been produced from small beginnings, per¬ 
haps from a single head or stool, selected by some 
