THE CULTIVATOR. 
75 
: weakened, find a benefit in thoroughly masticating or 
Ichewing their food. This principle is of great impor¬ 
tance in the feeding or fattening of animals, and shows 
the necessity of grinding or cooking the materials given 
ithem, if we are anxious they should derive the full be- 
! mefit of the nutritive matter contained in them. 
The experiments of Dr. Beaumont further proved, 
1 that when food of great nutritive powers was taken into 
the stomach in large quantities, the functions of that or¬ 
gan were evidently clogged, and that usually, in eating, 
: a larger quantity of nutritive matter was received than 
was beneficial. A certain quantity of solid food, or 
food of a bulky nature, he found to be essential to di- 
: gestion with ease, and a proper separation of the nutri¬ 
tive principle. This agrees with the fact, that horses 
or cattle require cut straw or hay mixed with their 
grain, both to ensure mastication, and furnish the ne- 
: cessary bulk of solid matter in the stomach. It is a 
c common saying with farmers, that an ox, when feeding 
< on meal, must be furnished with a lock of hay to make 
him a cud. They require more than this, and the 
} reason, from what has been said above, is perfectly ob¬ 
it vious. 
Capabilities of Soils—Vegetable Physiology. 
[From Prof. Jackson's 2d Annual Report of the Geology of 
the Public Lands of Maine and Massachusetts .] 
It is evident that plants are not endowed with creative 
powers, and consequently are unable to produce any 
new elementary substances; hence the various substan¬ 
ces which enter into their composition, must be derived 
from the air, water or earth. All the saline and earthy 
matters which they contain, are readily traced to their 
origin in the soil; while the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
and nitrogen that exist in them, are elements which they 
draw from air, water, and the animal and vegetable 
substances used as manures. 
The atmosphere is composed chiefly of the two gases, 
nitrogen and oxygen, mixed together in aeriform solu¬ 
tion, in the proportion of four-fifths nitrogen and one- 
fifth oxygen; besides which gases there is always a cer¬ 
tain proportion of carbonic acid gas, amounting to 
.1 part, and variable proportions of aqueous vapor. 
From the carbonic acid gas of the atmosphere, plants 
derive a large share of their carbon, which is the basis 
of ail vegetable matter. Some of it is also furnished by 
the fermentation of vegetable and animal substances, 
which decompose in the soil, and this gas is either de¬ 
composed by the leaves of vegetables, or is carried into 
their roots by aqueous solution and absorption. All 
fresh growing plants decompose the carbonic acid of the 
air, take up its carbon, and exhale oxygen gas, and this 
operation goes on more rapidly while the sun shines up¬ 
on them. In darkness, plants give out carbonic acid, 
but the quantity is relatively small, when compared 
with that which they absorb during the day. So that if 
a plant is grown under a bell glass, containing air mixed 
with this gas, the carbonic acid is soon removed, and 
replaced by pure oxygen. 
Thus vegetation is continually removing a substance 
deleterious to man and all animals, and replacing it by 
pure vital air—a gas absolutely necessary for their re¬ 
spiration. This beautiful law of nature should never 
be lost sight of by the farmer, nor shoiild he ever for¬ 
get the relation which the green woods and fields bear 
to the healthfulness of the country. 
Seed will not germinate without the joint action of 
air, water, light* and heat. Without these essential 
conditions, the germ remains, as it were, asleep for an 
unknown length of time. Seeds taken from the tombs 
of ancient Thebes, in Egypt, where they had remained 
in a dry, dark and sequestered spot, for more than three 
thousand years, were found still to possess their vital 
properties, and when planted in a botanical garden in 
London, sprang forth to flourish in the present age.— 
How long a seed, thus immured in darkness, shut out 
from all the causes which would produce germination 
or decay, would remain alive,is wholly unknown; but 
from the known facts respecting spontaneous rotation 
of crops and of forest trees, it would seem that the seeds 
remain buried in the soil for enormous lengths of time, 
before the circumstances necessary for their putting 
forth arrive. Dead leaves of the forest shutout light, 
and preclude, in some measure, the influence of the at¬ 
mosphere, while the sombre foliage hangs over the soil, 
and serves, by its shade, as an additional catise of pre¬ 
venting germination. Thus, I suppose, the seed, buried 
in the forests, remain dormant until the removal of the 
shade trees, or the burning of the leaves, gives free ac¬ 
cess to the causes requisite for germination and growth 
of the hidden plants; and we consequently perceive a 
new growth almost invariably follows the removal of 
the primeval forests. According to Decandole, plants ex¬ 
ude from their rootlets certain substances, which have 
the property of eventually eradicating their own spe¬ 
cies, while they are not preventive of the growth of 
other plants; hence he accounts for natural rotation.! 
It is probable, also, that one kind of vegetables may 
exhaust their proper nutriment, and thus render the 
soil incapable of supporting their kind, while there are 
other principles left suitable for the support of different 
species. This subject is, however, the most obscure 
department of vegetable physiology, and one which de¬ 
mands the labor of modern chemists and botanists.— 
Thus much we know, that the conditions above stated 
* We think light not necessary, but prejudicial, in the pro¬ 
cess of germination.— Cond. 
f This theory of Decandolle is not tenable.— Cond, 
are essential requisites to healthy vegetation, and that 
the soil must furnish certain substances not attainable 
alone from air and water. When we analyze a plant, 
we always find a certain quantity of silex, alumina, 
lime and potash, forming a large proportion of the ashes 
which is left on burning the plant. All these matters 
are contained in the soil, in greater or less proportions, 
and some of them are essential to the growth of the 
plants. The coating of wheat, rye and barley straw is 
silex, and gives the necessary strength and hardness to 
the stalk. 
The analysis of the grain of wheal gives a large pro¬ 
portion of the carbonate and phosphate of lime, and we 
know that this grain only thrives upon a soil contain¬ 
ing calcareous matter. It was long ago observed in 
Massachusetts, and is also seen in certain districts in 
Maine, that wheat straw grows very well, but the grain 
does not fill and present a plump and solid appearance, 
but looks wilted, and is not heavy. This was former¬ 
ly supposed to be owing to the climate, but on more 
careful examination, it is found to arise from the want 
of lime in the soil. Many animal manures contain a 
little of this substance, and it accordingly appears, that 
where a farm is well manured, wheat will grow well 
upon it, but a large annual expenditure is required for 
the purpose. It is observed, that all the grain regions 
of the country have soils more or less calcareous, and 
w r e find, that, by adding lime to the soil, we may pro¬ 
duce by art the material wanting; and it appears by 
analyses made in this country, and by the results of 
certain experiments which have been made in France, 
and repeated here, that a very minute proportion of 
lime is amply sufficient for the purpose. Thus one or 
two per cent of carbonate of lime will answer the pur¬ 
pose, and this small quantity costs so little, that any 
farmer can well afford to apply it to the soil. Indeed, 
I do not see how he can afford to do otherwise, since 
he will be a loser, and his more skilful neighbors will 
be enabled to supply the market, while he will not be 
able to recover his seed. 
It is a great mistake to suppose, that wheat will 
grow in any soil; fori know that in many instances, 
the crop raised the past season, which has certainly 
been very propitious, did not equal in value the seed 
sown; and these instances all occurred where the soil 
was destitute of lime, and was not largely manured. 
Unless you wish to waste your labor upon barren 
and unproductive fields, attend carefully to the nature 
of your soil, and supply those elements which are want¬ 
ing, in order to render it fruitful. 
When lime is moistened with water, it becomes hot, 
swells, and falls into a bulky white powder, called by 
chemists the hydrate of lime, it being composed of 
water combined with that substance in a solid state.— 
This powder, if the lime is of good quality, will amount 
to nearly three times as much as before it was slaked, 
so that one cask of lime will fill three casks with the 
hydrate, or water-slaked lime. If, on the other hand, 
the lime is exposed to the action of the air, it will at¬ 
tract carbonic acid gas, and become air-slaked, which 
operation re-converts it into its original chemical state. 
The hydrate also attracts carbonic acid from the air, 
and is likewise converted into the carbonate, which 
will weigh nearly twice as much as the quick-lime, from 
which it is made. 
I mention these evident facts, in order to assure the 
farmer, that when he buys a cask of lime, it will make 
about three of the article which he uses as a manure, 
and consequently, that it is not so expensive as he might 
imagine, since it increases in bulk, and will cover a con¬ 
siderable surface. Moreover, by a skilful management 
the farmer may, by the use of lime, form a vast num¬ 
ber of valuable composts, and may destroy, or not, as 
he pleases, the seeds and insects in liis compost or barn 
manure. It also has the power of decomposing animal 
and vegetable substances, the extent of which opera¬ 
tions, a skilful hand can regulate at will, and a great 
variety of valuable saline compounds, the most active of 
manures, may be formed. There are many cases, also, 
where the combining power of this substance can be 
taken advantage of, in the neutralization or iemoval of 
deleterious matters, and, by judicious management, 
those very principles may be converted into valuable 
manures. 
It is a common practice among farmers, to make use 
of peat, pond mud, or muck, as they call it, and I have 
observed instances in which it was evident that the soil 
was greatly injured by its application. In one instance 
I observed, in Waterford, that a portion of the field on 
which this substance was placed, presented a dwarfish 
and sickly yellow crop of Indian corn, while that part 
of the field not treated by it, was covered with a most 
luxuriant and healthy growth of the same corn. The 
operation was tried experimentally, in order to ascer¬ 
tain the value of peat alone as manure. 
If it had first been made into a compost, with animal 
manure and lime, it would have presented very diffe- 
rent results. Lime alone on peat renders its acid pro¬ 
perties inert, and then it answers pretty well as a ma¬ 
nure. But if laid down in layers with barn-yard ma¬ 
nure, night soil, dead fish, or any other animal matter, 
and then each layer strewed with lime, a most power¬ 
ful fermentation will take place, and a vast quantity of 
ammonia will be disengaged, which combining with the 
ulmic acid of peat, will form ulmate of ammonia, a 
most powerful manure. Carbonate of ammonia, and 
many other salts, will also result, which convert the 
whole mass into the very richest kind of manure, form¬ 
ing what may be properly called a universal compost. 
If the farmer is desirous of destroying the seeds and 
insects in barn-yard manure, let him heap it up in alter¬ 
nate layers, with fresh quick-lime, and the heat gene¬ 
rated will effectually destroy them.* This operation 
produces a number of soluble salts, and therefore it 
should only be done where the manure is soon to be 
used, for the rain would remove them in solution. 
If a soil is charged with sulphate of iron, it is best 
to use quick-lime in powder, sprinkled on the surface ol" 
the soil, for its action is the more rapid and powerful. 
Generally, however, it is proper to slake the lime with 
water, and then to expose it freely to the air, in case it 
is to be sown broad-cast, so that it may become carbo¬ 
nated, which renders it more permanent, it being less 
soluble in. water. 
In general, it may be stated, that about four casks of 
lime are required for each acre of land, and according 
to the experience of M. Puvis, this quantity, in many 
cases, was found amply sufficient. If the soil is loose 
and sandy, without any clay bottom near the surface, 
it is evident that annual renewals will be required, until 
the desirable quantity is obtained. 
Marl may be used in the same manner as air-slaked 
lime, and it is found to possess similar properties. Sea- 
shells may be used when broken to pieces by the action 
of fire, or by frost, and great benefit is gained by such 
a dressing. Shells owe their fertilizing properties to the 
carbonate of lime, of which they are chiefly composed, 
but their compact texture requires to be broken down 
in the manner alluded to. 
Burnt bones contain a small quantity of carbonate, 
mixed with a large proportion cf the phosphate of lime, 
and may be advantageously used. Bones ground to 
powder, have also a very powerful and desirable influ¬ 
ence, forming one of the most valuable top-dressings 
with which we are acquainted. The refuse bone black, 
from sugar refineries, is also extremely powerful, and 
is one of the warmest and strongest manures known. 
It is highly prized in France, and I have formerly men¬ 
tioned the fact, that orders were even sent to this coun¬ 
try for this article. It may be made into a compost with, 
other matters, since it is too strong to be used alone. 
Gypsum is said to operate well as a stimulant to vege¬ 
tation, and acts powerfully where the soils are calcare¬ 
ous. In Pennsylvania, it is is sown broad-cast upon 
their limestone soils, and operates powerfully, favoring 
the growth of grain and grasses. In Maine, it is the 
general opinion of farmers, that this mineral does not 
succeed upon the sea-coast, while it answers a good 
purpose in the interior of the state. I am not yet 
prepared, however, to report upon the subject, since I 
have not been able to gather the requisite number of facts. 
How should Manure be applied? 
[From the Yankee Fanner .] 
Mr. Editor —One of your correspondents has criti¬ 
cised with something of severity on a recommendation 
of the agricultural committee of Massachusetts to spread 
compost manure and harrow it in. On what ground 
Philo calls this an old error, we cannot easily imagine. 
Having- read with some attention treatises on agricul¬ 
ture for nearly forty years, we remember no period 
when the question has not been in discussion and dis¬ 
pute among theorists, whether manure should be left 
near the surface, or buried deep under the soil. There 
has been the manifestations of great zeal and some asperi¬ 
ty on the subject. The advocates of surface manuring 
have generally preferred the charge against their oppo¬ 
nents foy manurig the antipodes, and they themselves 
have been as confidently accused of manuring the at¬ 
mosphere. Each theory has the support of some very 
respectable names, and the opposition of others of equal 
weight. Observation and experience should determine 
the course of the practical farmer. We hope very ma¬ 
ny will make fair experiments on the recommendations 
of the committee, notwithstanding what has been writ¬ 
ten in opposition to it; for we believe after repeated 
trials, that it is the most perfect cultivation ever prac¬ 
tised in this country. Did Philo attend critically to the 
whole recommendation? Does it not as a whole, ap¬ 
proach nearer to a part of his own theory than he has 
supposed? It is recommended, first to turn the soil 
carefully over, to such depth as may be indicated by the 
character of the land, and the plants we propose to 
place in it. The turf we turn under is never to be dis¬ 
turbed in the subsequent culture. Now we have at the 
foundation of the soil, such a fermenting mass as your 
correspondent desires, not perhaps so powerful, but as 
certain and enduring. A practical objection against 
turning under all the manure we apply to the land with 
the turf, is, there will not be action and energy enough 
in what we make surface soil in ploughing to produce 
a crop. We want the quick operation of manure that 
takes place near the surface. We think there may be 
philosophical objections of great weightagainst burying 
manure deep in the earth; we claim not the ability of 
discussing fully such objections, but beg leave to call 
the attention of Philo to some remarks of Dr. Jackson 
which will at least convince him that all scientific men 
cannot assent to his doctrines. 
*' The loss of the saline matters of manures, by solution 
and infiltration.” the Doctor remarks, “is vastly greater than 
is commonly supposed by farmers. The evaporation, to 
which so much loss is attributed, is but a drop in the bucket, 
in comparison with that of solution. Some maintain that 
manures never penetrate the earth beyond the depth of a few 
inches; but this is a great error. The most important ingre¬ 
dient, viz: the soluble salts, penetrate the earth to an enor¬ 
mous depth, and we find animal matters in the well waters 
of Boston, one hundred and fifty feet, below the surface. I 
* Of very doubtful utility.— Co?id, 
