136 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
nstances it greatly endangers the success of the crop. How, 
herefore, can these be reconciled '! On careful examination 
we shall see, that here, as elsewhere, ali the difficulties will 
vanish when theory and practice are brought jointly to bear 
upon the subject, in such a manner that the one shall correct 
the other; or, in other words, when the question at issue is 
compromised, so as to suit the purposes of the farmer, and at 
the same time, not contradict the statements of the philoso¬ 
pher. In the first place, we may take it for granted, that in 
all cases where theory is opposed to successful practice , the 
former will eventually be found to be at fault, for it is per¬ 
fectly evident that the knowledge of the true theory must im¬ 
prove, instead of opposing those practices which time has 
shewn to be the most successful. Nevertheless, in the case 
before us, there is nothing radically wrong in the theory, but 
it has evidently been carried too far; in fact, it has been 
worked out, (if we may use the expression,) as a chemical 
problem, without due attention having been paid to the end 
in view; namely, the rendering of assistance to the farmer in 
his all-important operations. There is no doubt, for instance, 
that carbonic acid and aqueous vapor, are given out in abun¬ 
dance during fermentation, and also in the case of animal ma¬ 
nures, carbonate and hydrosulphate of ammonia, all of which are 
in certain cases of great importance to plants. But it is not 
sufficient to prove a fact scientifically, and at once apply it to 
practice, for, unfortunately, such is the imperfect state of 
science at present, that there is scarcely a single instance 
where some modification is not required, when the two are 
brought to bear upon each other. For example in the case 
in question, it is not sufficient to discover that some of the va¬ 
lue of the manure is lost during fermentation, and in conse¬ 
quence, to argue at once that manure should be applied fresh; 
we must prove in addition, that by so doing the farmer w r ill 
not injure his interests in any other way; that, when so ap¬ 
plied, it will serve all his purposes as well as when previously 
fermented. This, however, we shall not be able to do, for the 
following reasons. What the farmer wants when he applies 
manure to his land, is, 1, to enrich the land in such a man¬ 
ner that it shall be immediately fitted for cropping, and 
hence, a part of his manure must be already prepared for use, 
namely, rendered soluble. 2, The substance applied, must be 
in such a condition as to be easily incorporated with the soil, 
by the subsequent operation of tillage; and consequently 
must be in such a mechanical state, as not to interfere with 
these operations. Now, it has been proved scientifically, first, 
that when vegetable matter, and still more so, when a mix¬ 
ture of animal and vegetable matters, are exposed in a heap to 
the joint action of air and moisture, the temperature soon 
rises; chemical changes take place; part of the oxygen, hy¬ 
drogen and carbon, go off in the form of aqueous vapor, and 
carbonic acid; and at the same time a part of the remainder is 
rendered soluble, either in the form of hurrdn or some such 
combination; but, secondly, it has been proved that when 
these materials, instead of being heaped up, are spread out, 
and mixed with mineral matter, as when ploughed into the 
soil, the changes take place much more slowly; and lastly, it 
has been conjectured, but by no means proved, that when 
those changes take place in the soil, more soluble matter and 
less gas, is formed, and consequently that the effects upon 
vegetables are more powerful. Let us compare notes; The 
first object of the farmer is to have a supply of nourishment 
in a state fit for immediate use; but this can only be obtained 
by fermentation; and in the soil fermentation takes place very 
slowly; consequently, when fresh manure is applied, the 
seeds'run a chance of having to wait for their food; and, 
moreover, it is a generally acknowledged fact, with reference 
to all chemical changes which masses of matter undergo, that 
these changes proceed much more rapidly after they are once 
fairly commenced, than in the first instance. Again fermen- 
mentation softens and breaks down long straws, &c. which 
would otherwise make the husbandry extremely foul. This 
objection, in fact, presented itself to Sir Humphrey Davy, and 
to obviate it, he proposes the straw to be chopped before it is 
spread. The proper question for discussion, therefore, is not 
merely, as we have seen, whether fermentation is accompa¬ 
nied with loss; but whether the extra advantages attending 
the use of previously fermented dung will compensate for the 
loss sustained during its preparation. All practical farmers 
-will doubtless answer in the affirmative; but even here we 
must be cautious how we generalize the principle. Practical 
men are at all times too fond of making general rules; for 
example, in the cise before us, most farmers ferment their 
dung to a certain extent, often much too far, and then apply 
it to all purposes indiscriminately, whereas it is clear that the 
necessity of fermentation holds good only in those cases 
where an immediate supply of nutriment is required; and 
consequently, when a fallow is manured, or when the ma¬ 
nure is ploughed in with the stubble in autumn, in prepara¬ 
tion for the next year’s green crop, the manure may be used 
in a much fresher state, especially on strong soils. This fact 
has been well illustrated in a paper, on “A new method of 
applying manure,” by Mr. Baker of Nassau Cottage, near 
Leeds, which appeared in the 6th volume of this journal in 
] 833-7. The same plan is likewise mentioned in British Hus¬ 
bandry, in the Library of Useful Knowledge, under the arti¬ 
cle manure, where it recommends the fresh manure to be laid 
on the stubble during winter, and the long-straws raked off 
before the spring ploughing. It has been remarked, howe¬ 
ver, that the practice of ploughing-in raw manure in autumn, 
as preparative for the next year’s crop, will not answer on 
light soils, as in this case a large quantity of the-manure is 
lost; in fact I have been informed by an excellent authority 
upon such subjects, that nearly double the quantity in such 
soil, is required to produce the same effect when applied in 
this way, as when fermented above ground, and ploughed- 
in immediately before the spring sowing. This I presume must 
depend upon the open texture of such soil, by permitting ra¬ 
pid fermentation and allowing the gaseous parts to escape, 
and likewise the soluble matters to be washed deep into the 
sail as soon as they are produced. Thus we at once see how 
ta compromise the question, and we consequent!}'' leave it in 
the following position, namely, that undoubtedly loss of ma¬ 
nure is sustained by allowing fermentation to take place 
before it is applied to the land; but that this loss is more 
than compensated for, by the peculiar advantages of ferment¬ 
ed dung in all cases where an immediate supply of nourish¬ 
ment is required. But on the other hand, that in those cases 
where the manure is to remain some months in the soil before 
the seed is sown, it should unquestionably be applied in a 
much fresher state, although even in this instance incipient 
^•mentation may be useful, by rendering it capable of being 
kept up with greater facility, under the disadvantageous cir¬ 
cumstances in which the manure is placed, when mixed with 
soil. I do not, however, by any means wish it to be supposed, 
that I consider the question as settled; far from it; the above 
statement is merely a representation of the case as it at pre¬ 
sent stands; but obviously a great deal has yet to be learned, 
more especially with regard to the science of the subject. We 
must return, however, to the consideration of the individual 
manures. 
Mere Woody Fibre. —At first sight one would be inclined to 
ask, when is mere woody fibre ever employed as a manure ? 
But if we consider a little, we shall find two substances at 
least, which have been proposed as manures, to consist chiefly 
if not solely of this chemical compound—I refer to the refuse 
of the tan-pit, and peat. Both of these contain little or no 
substance besides mere woody fibre; for example, the opera¬ 
tions of the tanner have removed all the soluble matter from 
the bark which he employs in his manufacture; and the 
long continued action of water has had the same effect upon 
peat. When we remember that the prime object of manur¬ 
ing, is to supply the plant with organic matter in such a state 
as to be capable of being dissolved in water, we must at once 
perceive that, theoretically, this manure is one of the worst 
possible kinds, if used in an unaltered condition, and practice 
has long ago proved the same fact; for Mr. Arthur Young, in 
his valuable 11 Essay on Manure,” states, that “spent bark 
seems rather to injure than assist vegetation;” and it is 
well known that no plant can grow in soil where there is an 
accumulation of peaty matter. Mr. Young supposed that the 
injurious nature of tanners’ spent bark depended upon the 
astringent matter that it contained; but Sir Humphrey Davy 
has shewn, that the processes to which the bark is subjected, 
free it entirely from soluble matter, and that the injurious 
action most probably depends upon the bark having a great 
attraction for fluids, and at the same time being impervious 
to the roots of vegetables. On this account, therefore, the 
bark would absorb the soluble parts of the manure, and thus 
deprive the plants of their food as soon as it was prepared for 
them. Even Sir Humphrey Davy, therefore, allows that mere 
woody fibre requires to be fermented before being used as ma¬ 
nure; since, from the absence of all mucilaginous, saccharine, 
and other soluble matters, there is little or no tendency to 
decomposition, and consequently this must be brought about 
artificially; the best mode of doing which, is either to mix it 
with a quantity of hot lime, or to follow the plan proposed 
by Lord Meadowbank, of mixing it with farm-yard manure. 
The success of this latter method being dependent upon the 
fact, that if putrefaction commences at one point of a heap of 
organic matter, it will undoubtedly spread through the whole 
mass. In reference to the action of lime upon peat, &c. we 
shall say nothing at present, as this will be fully treated of 
when we consider the mixed manures. 
(2.) Animal manures. —It is generally allowed that these re¬ 
quire far less preparation, than those derived from the vege¬ 
table kingdom, since they have a much greater tendency to pu- 
trify, and hence of course do not require to be heaped together 
in order to produce this effect; besides their mechanical form is 
seldom such as to interfere materially with the various opera¬ 
tions of tillage. They are comparatively seldom used alone, 
but nevertheless require consideration here, in order that the 
subsequent remarks upon the vegeto-animal composts may be 
more fully understood. The chief of them are—the various 
kinds of excrement, urine, hair, woollen rags, feathers, dead 
animals, fish, blubber and horn.* 
Of the various kinds of excrement, night-soil is by far the 
most valuable. This substance has been long used by the 
Chinese, who mix it with one-third of its weight of marl, 
and dry it in cakes by exposure to the sun. _ These cakes are 
said to be void of all disagreeable smell. It is likewise pre¬ 
pared with quick-lime in France, and sold in the form of a 
dry powder, under the name of “ pouclrette,” in which state 
it is sown with the seed in the same manner as rape-cake; the 
admixture of lime is merely to prevent the disagreeable odour 
which this substance otherwise possesses. There exists many 
prejudices against the use of this truly valuable manure, but 
it is neeediess to say that these are entirely without founda¬ 
tion.! The other species of excrement which have been 
used as manure, are those produced by the various birds and 
animals which are kept in a domesticated state. These have 
been found to be of very different degrees of power; the most 
valuable is supposed to be that of the pigeon: this, however, 
can only be used where great n umbers of these birds are 
kept. It is stated to contain 23 per cent of soluble matter 
when recent, and hence will require no preparation before it 
is used. The next in order is the cleaning of poultry-houses; 
this is very similar to the last, and of course is produced 
in much greater quantity. A good method of using these 
manures, would probably be, to form them into compost with 
<farth, dry leaves, &c. thus imitating the process which goes 
on in woods frequented by the wild pigeon, where the soil is 
found to be peculiarly rich and valuable. Of the excremenii- 
tious matters produced by the various domesticated animals, 
that of the rabbit is stated to be the most valuable; but of 
' course it is liable to the same objections as those above men¬ 
tioned, namely, the small quantity in which it is generally 
procured. Some farmers, however, have gone so far as to 
say, that is is profitable to keep rabbits for the sake of their 
manure; this, however, must be under very pecibixrcircum¬ 
stances. Of the remaining manures of this order, that of the 
sheep, horse, and sivme, are generally considered more power¬ 
ful than that produced by cows. It is needless, however, to 
enter fully into the consideration of all these, as the whole 
of them act in pretty nearly the same manner, only with slight 
differences in their power. The composition of all this class 
of substances is the debris of the food taken by the animals, 
mixed up with bile and various other matters. 
Urines. —These are all very powerful manures, but it is cu¬ 
rious enough that, with one exception, they are all improved 
by putrefaction. The best way of using them undoubtedly 
is, to have the stables, &c. so constructed that all the fluid 
parts are carried into underground tanks, where they accu¬ 
* Bones are often enumerated among animal manures, and 
their origin would certainly justify such an arrangement, but 
from the large proportion of earthy and saline matter they 
contain, they will be more conveniently treated of under the 
head of mixed manures. 
t Animalized carbon appears to owe its fertilizing powers 
to this substance. 
mulate, and can either be raised by a pump and applied in 
the liquid form, or, which is probably the better plan when 
circumstances wiil permit of it, the tanks may be filled with 
porous earth, and the whole will then form an exceedingly 
rich compost: probably peat might be advantageously used 
for this purpose. In whatever way, however, this manure is 
applied, it is at all times, most valuable. It abounds in anv- 
moniacal salts, which have been supposed to be the cause of 
their injurious action when fresh, as it has been proved that 
solutions of these salts, unless extremely dilute, act injuriously 
upon plants; this, however, can hardly be the cause, as putre¬ 
faction increases instead of diminishes the quantity of am¬ 
monia. The one exception which I mentioned is the urine of 
the sheep, which is stated by all practical farmers to act as 
manure as soon as it is formed. Now, it is not easy to un¬ 
derstand how this should differ from all other kinds of urine; 
but with the testimony of all farmers in its favor, it would 
certainly be worth while to have the point carefully examin¬ 
ed into, before we endeavor to explain it. 
Hair, Woollen Rags Feathers, Sfc. are all valuable manures, 
when they can be procured in sufficient quantity. All wool¬ 
len rags are carefully collected by the inhabitants of the 
South of France, for the purpose of burying them at the 
foot of their olive-trees. Their composition appears to be 
chiefly gelatine and albumen. They decompose much more 
slowly than the generality of animal manures, and conse¬ 
quently, will probably be found particularly useful in those 
cases where a supply of nitrogen is required during the latter 
part of the growth of a crop, as for example in wheat. This 
subject I shall revert to when speaking of the application of 
manure to various crops. In the manufacturing districts 
the refuse of the different woollen factories will be extremely 
useful in this respect. 
Dead Animals and Fish. —The former of these are very 
seldom used by the farmer, although it is evident that they 
would be extremely useful. Sir Humphrey Davy very pro¬ 
perly proposes, that animals which dte from disease or acci¬ 
dent should (after having the skin removed), be covered with 
five or six times their bulk of soil mixed with lime, and 
allowed to decompose for some months, when the whole will 
be found to constitute a rich compost; the disagreeble 
smell of which may be prevented, by mixing lime with it 
when about to be turned. The refuse of slaughter-houses 
might be advantageously employed in this manner. Dead 
fish have been long known as a very powerful manure; they 
of course, however, are liable to the objection already stated, 
namely, the difficulty with which they are procured, except 
in certain situations. When employed, they must be mixed 
with soil and applied fresh, care being taken not to use too 
great a quantity, as they are very liable to produce rankness 
in the crop; their effects are felt for many years. The re¬ 
fuse of the fishmarkets, and that of fishing-villages, ought 
on this account to be carefully collected, and made into com¬ 
post. Guano, a most valuable manure, which occurs in the 
South Sea Islands, in beds of from fifty to sixty feet thick, 
has been analyzed by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, and found to 
have a composition similar to the dung of sea-birds. This 
will account for its value, as in that case it will consist 
chiefly of the debris of fishes, mixed up with the ordinary 
constituents of the dung of birds. 
Blubber and Horn are both very useful mauures, when they 
can be procured; they both are composed almost entirely of 
animal substances, capable of being rendered soluble in 
water during putrefaction, and are at the same time in such 
a state that decomposition goes on slowly. We now come 
to the consideration of by far the most important of all spe¬ 
cies of manure, namely, 
(3.) The Vegeto-Animal manures, or those which contain 
a mixture of animal and vegetable substances. These are 
chiefly the different varieties of stable-manure, &c. which are 
known under the name of ‘ ‘ farm-yard dung.” This, from its 
abundant production, and many other causes, is beyond 
doubt by far tne m'ost valuable manure at present known. 
For example, it is valuable in a scientific point of view, be¬ 
cause, being a mixture of animal and vegetable matter, it 
ferments easily, supplies a large quantity of soluble matter, 
and from its nature is capable of yielding nourishment to all 
kinds of vegetables. And practically, this manure recom¬ 
mends itself to the firmer,—1, Because it is necessarily pro¬ 
duced in considerable quantities upon all farms where stock 
is kept; 2, Because, from this circumstance, it is evident 
that none of the crops consumed on the farm can be consi¬ 
dered as lost; and 3, Because experience has long ago shewn 
that no manure is so generally useful. 
It is needless to attempt to state the composition of a sub¬ 
stance which must be of necessity so various; a few practi¬ 
cal remarks will be, therefore, all that I shall introduce here. 
In the first place, it will be evident to all that the value of 
this manure will differ greatly according to the relative im¬ 
portance of its different ingredients; as, of course, since ani¬ 
mal matters produce the greatest quantity of soluble nourish¬ 
ment, the greater the pr oportion of this class of substances the 
more useful will the compound prove. Again, it has been 
shewn that the period at which itis applied influences greatly 
its beneficial erlects; for if allowed to rot away until it is 
reduced to the state of soft, dark, unctuous mass, not retain¬ 
ing any remains of vegetable structure, it can be easily 
shewn that more than one-half of its most valuable consti¬ 
tuents have been lost. The remarks, however, which we 
have already made upon this subject of fermentation will, of 
course, apply here. It is stated in the Library of Useful 
Knowledge, in the article on British Husbandry, that the 
manure of fat beasts is much more valuable than that of lean 
cattle: this will very probably be the ease, and, of course, 
depends upon the food with which the animals have been 
supplied. Thus, ten carts of dung from animals fed with 
oil-cake, were found equal to sixteen from those fed upon 
turnips. From this fact, therefore, it would appear necessary, 
that, in experimenting with this manure, we should pay at¬ 
tention to the food with which the animals have been sup¬ 
plied daring its production. Much more might be said re¬ 
garding the formation and management of dung-heaps; but 
this would involve us too much in pure practical farming. 
Twelfth An am a! Fair of the American Institute. 
This anniversary celebration of industry and the arts will 
open to visiters at Niblo’s Garden, in the city of New-York, 
the 7th of October next, at 10 o’clock, A. M. All articles 
brought to the garden are required to be entered by the clerk 
•of the fair in a book. Those intended for competition for 
