THE CULTIVATOR. 
153 
however, I shall present some considerations hereafter.— 
There is also another property of soils too generally lost 
sight of, namely, their electro motive power, and their in¬ 
fluence in this manner, upon the absorbing spongioles ol the 
radicles, producing the effect called by M. Dutroehet, endos- 
mose or internal impulse. This effect is most assuredly pro¬ 
duced by those mixtures and combinations of mineral mat¬ 
ters and salts, with vegetable humus, which characterize lux¬ 
uriant soils. Here, then, is a new field of research for the 
philosophical farmer, who will find the still small galvanic 
currents which take place among the particles of soil, are 
busy preparing his bread. The influence of electricity has 
long been known to hasten vegetation, and plans will ulti¬ 
mately be adopted to bring the results of the laboratory into 
the hot bed and green house, while a contemplation of' the 
phenomena will illustrate those great natural laboratories 
the corn-fields of the farmer. A soil consisting of one kind 
of earth, is barren —no matter of what earth it may be com¬ 
posed, whether silex, alumina, lime or gypsum. Pure vege¬ 
table matter, is also barren; but proper combinations or mix¬ 
tures of three earths, always produce fertility, provided the^a- 
bulum or food of the plant be present also. Certain saline 
matters are said to stimulate plants, and by this I understand 
that they produce electrical movements or endosmose, for 
they will act in a similar manner upon dead or inorganic mat¬ 
ter, as seen in Dutrochet’s experiments. By salme stimu¬ 
lants, the foliage of plants is rapidly and substantially deve¬ 
loped, owing to tlxe absorption of carbonic acid gas from the 
atmosphere, and the retention of its carbon, while the oxy¬ 
gen gas is exhaled by the green leaves. And since such sti¬ 
muli tend only to the development of the foliage, and act 
against both germination and ripening, the proper time to 
apply such substances, is after the plant has shot up, and be¬ 
fore it begins to ripen its seeds or fruits. 
These principles are generally unknown to farmers, and 
hence their unskilful appplication of gypsum, salt, &c. as 
dressings to soils. They also neglect to consider the native 
habitat of their plants, and hence often apply the wrong sti¬ 
muli. Now it is evident, that since asparagus plants, onions, 
cabbages, and similar vegetables, are native plants of the 
sea-coasts of those countries, to which they are indigenous, 
that if they are to be cultivated in soils free from saline mat¬ 
ter, salt may be advantageously used in small quantities, to 
render them more luxuriant. Gypsum and sea salt have 
nearly the same effect upon plants, and hence when the soil 
derives saline matter from salt-water spray, or vapor, gypsum 
will not benefit the soil, or act as a stimulant upon plants.— 
This opinion, which is proved in the Prize essay of Profes¬ 
sor Le Coeq, on saline manures, explains the fact well known 
i n Maine, that gypsum exerts but little action upon the soils 
near the sea-coast, but does act favorably on the soils of farms 
situated in the interior of the State, especially on those 
which contain small quantities of carbonate orgeate of lime. 
As I have formerly stated, it is evident from an examina¬ 
tion of the mineral ingredients of soils, that they all origi¬ 
nated from the decomposition and disintegration of rocks, ivhich 
for ages have been acted upon by air and water; those agents 
having, by their mechanical and chemical powers, shivered 
and crumbled the solid ledges into those pulverulent matters 
wdiieh form the basis of all soils—to which, subsequently, 
small quantities of vegetable humus are added by the decay 
of plants. 
Ancient soils. There have been various epochs in the 
earth’s history, when soils were thus formed, and after bearing 
their luxuriant vegetation, were reconverted by aqueous and 
igneous causes, into rocks, the structure, and fossil contents 
of which, denote their origin to have been from sedimentary 
matter, hardened by pressure and heat. Thus, w-hen we 
look back to the epoch of the transition formations, we find 
the rocks composing that series to be composed of agglome¬ 
rated sand and pebbles, cemented by clay, which presents 
itself in an indurated form, the results of igneous action. 
Marine shells, contained in the graywacke rocks just describ¬ 
ed, evince that this deposite was chiefly formed beneath the 
waters of the sea, while some portions of it were deposited 
in fresh water, as proved by the presence of certain plants, 
peculiar to bogs and lakes. The slates of this formation 
contain prints and casts of numerous plants—such as ferns, 
equisetaceie, lepidodendrse and stigmaricae; while beds of 
anthracite coal, shewing by their structure and composition 
their vegetable origin, are also included between the strata. 
Now it is evident, that the above mentioned plants could 
not have grown without a soil, and the rocks in which they 
are imbedded bear every proof that they were once in that 
condition. 
Secondary soils. We come next to the secondary epoch; 
and here again we are astonished to find proofs of a numerous 
succession of alternating beds of soil, each having, for long 
periods of time bore their perennial verdure of intertropical 
plants, allied to those above noticed, but more complicated 
and perfect in their structure. The sandstones and shales 
of this formation are vast herbarise of ancient vegetation, 
and their strata contain, well preserved between their sheets, 
perfect impressions of numerous genera of plants, the species 
of which are now extinct. Large trunks of trees are also 
exposed by opening coal mines and quarries of sandstone, 
while the numerous and reiterated strata of coal itself also 
bear ample proofs of their vegetable origin. 
Here, then, we have another epoch, at which soils existed, 
produced their abundant vegetation, stored the earth with 
fuel, and then were reconverted into solid rocks, to be again 
subjected to the wear and tear of elemental strife. 
The tertiary epoch was of a milder character, and but 
little disturbance of the solid rocks appears to have been ef¬ 
fected during those submersions, when the plastic clay, cal¬ 
careous marls and strata of perfectly preserved marine shells, 
were deposited. These sedementary matters appear to have 
resulted from a slow and gradual deposition of clay and other 
fine sedementary matter, which beneath the sea became soon 
inhabited by numerous shell fish, and were imbedded in suc¬ 
cession as we now find them, since the elevation of the land 
above the encroachments of the sea. 
When we consider the several periods which I have briefly 
mentioned, it will at once reveal to any reflecting person, 
that the world has been during the lapse of inconceivable 
ages, subject to great revolutions in its geological organiza¬ 
tion. At one time, the rocks are worn down into soils, and 
bear their vegetation—then continents were sunk in the 
ocean’s depths, and subsequently were raised again, the soils 
having in the mean time, been converted into rocks. By 
such considerations, we soon learn to respect the antiquity of 
the world; and knowing that such records are legibly writ¬ 
ten on the tablets of stone, we feel a natural desire to read 
and understand their meaning. 
Ancient alluvial soils, or diluvium. Subsequent to 
the epochs of which I have spoken, we find that another scene 
of violence disturbed the tranquillity of the great deep, and 
the northern ocean was hurled, with its seas of ice, over the 
land, sweeping the loose materials from the very mountain 
tops, and depositing them far south of their former resting 
places—while the grooves, scratches and water marks upon 
the surface of the fixed ledges, shew the direction in which 
the current passed. By such a flood, (proofs of which are 
nearly universal in Maine, as elsewhere,) the soils were 
transported and commingled, so that we rarely find a soil si¬ 
milar to the rocks beneath it, but identical with that derived 
from other rocks, which occur to the north and northwest.— 
Having already cited so many localities in proof of this posi¬ 
tion, I shall not here recapitulate, and the intelligent observ¬ 
er will find so many illustrations in Maine, to satisfy his ra¬ 
tional curiosity on the subject, that he need not long remain 
in doubt as to the facts. 
Modern alluvial soils. The present causes which act 
upon the solid rocks, are both chemical and mechanical.— 
Oxygen, from the atmosphere and from water, is constantly 
affecting some portions of the work, especially where the 
rocks contain pyrites. Rivers, torrents, brooks, and even 
rain, are gradually sweeping away the solid rocks, by then- 
continued action; but more powerful than all others, is the 
action of freezing water, which, by an almost irresistibly ex¬ 
pansive force, rends all rocks, into which water can find a pas¬ 
sage, and crumbles down those which are porous in their 
structure. Upon the coast, the sea ever beating the solid 
rocks and hurling the loose fragments with the force of bat¬ 
tering ordnance against the shores, wears away the ledges, 
the detritus being either spread out on the bottom, or sifted 
up at the mouths of harbors and estuaries. 
Alluvial soils are produced by the transportation of fine 
particles, by aqueous agency, from higher sources, and are 
especially brought down and deposited during freshets, 
when a river bursts its confines, and being diminished in its 
velocity, deposites its sedementary matter over the intervales. 
The force of the wind is also constantly removing fine parti¬ 
cles of soil from one district to another, and the dust of ages 
is of greater importance than is commonly believed. Enough 
has been said on this subject to excite inquiry, and to stimu¬ 
late others to look over the pages of nature, for their own 
satisfaction, and this is all that can be expected from intro¬ 
ductory remarks, such as I now offer to the reflecting ob¬ 
server. 
remarks on limestones. 
A tabular view of the chemical composition of each va¬ 
riety of limestone, analyzed in my laboratory during the pre¬ 
sent year, is herewith subjoined. From this table, it is easy 
to fix the relative values of each kind of rock, and to learn 
how they will burn in the kiln. Many of them will bear the 
heat requiste for converting them into lime, by the discharge 
of the carbonic acid gas, at a full red heat; others must be 
burned more slowly and with a gently increasing lire, which 
may be ultimately driven to a dull or cherry redness. All 
those marked as good, will slake perfectly, after being burn¬ 
ed, and are sufficiently pure for all ordinary uses. They are 
generally free from magnesia, and hence are better adapted 
to agricultural use, than the magnesia limestones. Magnesia 
will remain a long time exposed without absorbing its equi¬ 
valent of carbonic acid, and thus it does not act favorably, 
excepting when thoroughly saturated by the fermentation of 
compost, or by long exposure to the air. When such lime¬ 
stones are skilfully managed, they answer nearly as well as 
the pure lime. The argillaceous matter contained in some of 
the limestones, that occur imbedded in slate rocks, does no 
harm to the soil, and is even beneficial in some cases. The 
Dexter and Guilford limestones will make a good and strong 
mortar, and will also prove very valuable in making com¬ 
post, or for the treatment of soils by liming. So will also 
many of the other varieties hereafter mentioned in the ta- 
^ Under the description of each locality, I have made ample 
observations on the nature of the lime-rock, and shall here 
present some views or plans of such kilns as may be required 
for the conversion of the rocks into quicklime. 
[Fig. No. 40.J—15 feet. 
WJ/Wr 
Lime Kiln for burning 300 casks of lime at a tone. 
Fig. 40. Kiln built of refractory rocks, lined with clay, and 
laid outside with mortar—fifteen feet wide—fifteen feet high 
—five feet back. Arches—middle, five feet high—side ar¬ 
ches, three and a half feet high. 
This kiln is of the form commonly used at Thomaston, 
and the lime is burned by means of wood fuel—thirty cords 
of wood being required to burn the charge of rock. The 
operations are divided into four turns, and from three to foul- 
days and nights the fire is kept unremittingly in action. At 
the close of the operation, the limestone is found to be con¬ 
verted into caustic lime. A more full statistical view of this 
business, may be seen in my former Reports on the Geology 
of Maine. It is necessary, in case the rock is liable to slag, 
that it should be broken into pieces of pretty uniform dimen¬ 
sions, or at least, care must be taken to place the larger 
masses near the fire, and the smaller ones more distant from 
it. The arches are to be built up of large angular pieces of 
the rock, not more than six or eight inches in diameter, and 
they must be laid loosely, so that the flame may penetrate 
freely through them, and act upon the superincumbent mass 
of broken lime-rock. I have seen some persons break the 
limestone in the kiln. This should never be done, for the 
small pieces fill up the interstices in the charge, and prevent 
the passage of flame and heated air, required for the draft 
of the kiln. 
In laying the arches of limestone, make them coincide 
with the arches of the kiln—pack the pieces so as to allow 
the passage of the fire, and lay the limestone in a very loose 
manner, until the kiln is half full. Then you may throw in 
the smaller pieces in confusion, and fill up the kiln to the 
top. This being done, place your fuel in the arches and 
kindle your fires, and drive them until the lime is sufficiently 
burned, which may be from three to four days and nights, 
according to the kind of rock, and the intensity of the fire. 
A smaller kiln may be required in some towns, and in 
cases where the farmer burns his lime for his own use only. 
I therefore, herewith present a plan for such a kiln. 
[Fig. No. 41.] 
This kiln is of a cylindri¬ 
cal form, rather wider out¬ 
side at the bottom than at the 
top, so as to give it more so¬ 
lidity. It is ten feet high, 
and five feet in diameter at 
the top, while the bottom in¬ 
ternally contracts a little, so 
as to support the charge.—• 
This contraction is unneces¬ 
sary, excepting where the 
limestone crumbles or “ fine 
burns,” during its calcina¬ 
tion. The arch may be made 
four and a half or five feet 
high, and two and a half or three feet wide so as to allow 
room for discharging the lime, after it is burned. The kiln 
may be made of any rock, capable of withstanding a full red 
heat. Talcose slate, mica slate, or even common clay slate, 
will answer. It must be pointed with clay inside, and with 
mortar on the outside. In charging this kiln, the stone is 
broken into suitable sized pieces, and an arch is built up, 
corresponding with the arched opening and extending quite 
across the diameter of the kiln. Having laid up this arch 
loosely, pack the kiln in a careful manner, until it is half full 
of the broken limestone; then you may throw in the smaller 
pieces on the top, and fill the kiln entirely. It is now set 
for burning, and you have only to place the wood and kin¬ 
dle a fire in the arch, keeping the heat gradually increasing, 
until the limestone is sufficiently burned. This may be known 
either by the time required, or by the appearance of the pie¬ 
ces at the top of the charge. It will generally be noticed, 
that when the fire has done its office, that the smoke ceases 
to appear at the top of the kiln, and a flame rises through the 
interstices at the top. The charge begins also to settle a lit¬ 
tle. The time required for the burning of lime, varies with 
the different kinds of lime-rock, and hence it is alone to be 
learned by experience in a particular case, and with the kind 
of kiln with which the lime burner is acquainted. One or 
two fair trials, will teach any intelligent man how to do the 
work in a proper manner. 
The cost of the lime prepared in a small kiln, is always-a 
little more than when it is made in a large way; hence 
where an extensive demand exists, the three hundred cask 
kiln would prove the most profitable to the manufacturer.— 
Most of the limestones here described, may be burned at the 
cost of twenty-five cents per cask, in bulk—or for fifty cents, 
packed in casks. Where it is to be used on the spot, in ag¬ 
ricultural improvements, it may be thrown out of the kiln, and 
allowed to slake itself, and then is ready for immediate use. 
Its weight is increased from thirty to fifty per cent by slak¬ 
ing, and its bulk is tripled or quadrupled; hence, where it is 
to be transported to a distance, it is better • to take it in its 
caustic state, either in bulk or in casks. 
A shed ought to be built near the kiln, so as to keep the 
lime under cover, to prevent its being wet by rain. 
Rock, fresh from the quarry, burns more easily than after 
it has become dry by laying exposed to the action of sun and 
air. 
Limestones, containing pyrites, like that at Brown's corner, 
in Clinton, give out sulphurous acid gas during the process 
of burning, and in such cases, it is unpleasant to have the 
kiln near the house. In all cases, at the commencement of 
the operation, much smoke is produced, and it is. therefore, 
convenient to place the kiln where people are not likely to 
be annoyed by it. When driving the fire in a lime kiln, you 
perceive that the limestone melts or slags, you must not in¬ 
crease the heat beyond that point. 
Poor limestones are frequently burned best by means of 
wood that is not perfectly dry, so as not to burn too rapidly. 
A little experience and discretion, however, will teach any 
man how to regulate the fire, so as to make the best kind of 
lime. 
By examining the tables, knowing how one kind of lime¬ 
stone burns, you may judge of the others which are there 
presented. Nearly every variety of limestone found in 
Maine, I have burned in my laboratory, and know, practi¬ 
cally, exactly how they will burn, and the quality of lime 
that will result. Where the oxide of iron is more than two 
per cent the lime will have a brownish tinge, so as to render 
it unsuitable for plastering ceilings. The slate is merely 
inert, and gives an ash grey colour to the lime, where it 
abounds. 
Silex, when chemically combined with the lime and oxide 
of iron, forming what are called by chemists silicates of lime 
and iron, produces a hydraulic limestone, liable to melt at 
a full white heat. It is frequently a valuable article for 
making hydraulic cement, and abounds in several places in 
the State, especially at Macliias, and at the forks of the Ken¬ 
nebec river. Many of the rocks described in the catalogues 
appended to this Report, as calciferous slates, will also make 
hydraulic lime. They may be burned at a red heat, but 
beyond that temperature run into a deep green glass or slag. 
