THE CULTIVATOR. 
175 
fleece on, he was not a little surprised to find them, a 
few days after, covered with dead weevils. He repeat- g 
ed the experiments several times, and always with the 
same success. At last he ordered his corn to he stirred 
up, and not a single weevil remained in it.” 
I remain, sir, yours, 
A CONSTANT READER. 
Young Men’s Department, 
Chemical Catechism—Chapter IX. 
[ F'rom Parkes’ Chemical Catechism-] 
of simple combustibles — continued. 
What is the origin of phosphorus ? 
Phosphorus is a peculiar substance, both of animal(l) 
and mineral origin. It was formerly obtained by a very 
tedious and disgusting process; but is now generally 
procured by the decomposition of the phosphoric acid, 
which is found in animal bones. ( 2 ) 
What is the nature( 3) of phosphorus ? 
Phosphorus is a solid inflammable (4) substance, 
which burns at a very low temperature, when in contact 
with oxygen gas or atmospheric air; and, when thus 
saturated with oxygen, it forms a peculiar acid.(5) It 
may be easily cut by the knife, and melts at 90° of 
Fahrenheit. <Its specific gravity is nearly twice that of 
water. 
What compounds are formed by means of phosphorus ? 
Phosphorus may be combined with oxygen, hydrogen, 
chlorine,( 6 ) sulphur, or with most of the metals,(7) and 
also with some earths.( 8 ) 
(1) The real origin of phosphorus is very obscure: some 
have supposed it to be a product of the process of animaliza- 
tion, and several curious facts might be adduced to strengthen 
this opinion. 
(2) Phosphorus was accidentally discovered at Hamburg, 
in 1669, by an alchemist of the name of Brandt, in his search 
after gold; and two years afterwards, one Kraft brought a 
small piece of this substance to London, on purpose to show 
it to the king and queen of England. Mr. Boyle aiterwards 
discovered the process, which he described in the Philoso¬ 
phical Transactions for 1680, and in a little book which he 
published in the same year, entitled The Aerial Noctiluca. 
Mr. Boyle instructed Mr. Godfrey Hankwitz of London how 
to procure it from urine, so that he was the first who made it 
for sale in England; and he continued to supply all Europe 
with it for many years. I have in my possession a scarce 
portrait, by Vertue, of this chemist in the midst of his labo-] 
ratory, surrounded by his chemical apparatus; the form of 
which shows that even at that time they had the means of 
accurate analysis, if they had had a rational theory to direct 
them. From a Latin inscription, it appears that he had this 
print engraved to present to his customers on his taking leave 
of them, when about to enter upon his travels abroad to sell 
phosphorus. 
The discovery of phosphorus proves that valuable disco¬ 
veries may be made even by men who have no means of | 
appreciating their nature. Stahl maintained that it was the f 
marine salt contained in urine, which yielded phosphorus, i 
(3) Phosphorus, when taken internally, is poisonous. It? 
is related in the Annates de Chimie, that a great number of l 
domestic fowls and turkeys were poisoned, merely by drink- S’ 
ing the water in which some newly made phosphorus had j 
been washed. Though poisonous, it has been given in small 
quantities by some French physicians, in malignant fevers, 
to stop the progress of gangrene, in which it succeeded be¬ 
yond all hope. (Nicholson’s Journal of Philosophy and Che¬ 
mistry, vol. iii. page 85.) 
(4) If a piece of phosphorus be placed on the surface of 
water, a little below the heat of boiling, it will immediately 
inflame. This is one characteristic of phosphorus, and dis¬ 
tinguishes it from all others substances. It melts at the 
temperature of 90°, and takes fire at about 148°. 
(5) Phosphorus is used in forming phosphoric acid, in va¬ 
rious chemical experiments, and in making phosphoric match 
bottles. These bottles may be prepared by mixing one part 
of flour of sulphur with eight of phosphorus. When used 
to procure light, a very minute quantity is taken out of the 
bottle on the point of a match, and rubbed upon cork or 
wood, which produces an immediate flame., 
Phosphorus should always be handled with great care, lest 
any part of it get under the finger nails, a small portion oj 
which might occasion great inconvenience. 
( 6 ) Sir Humphry Davy has formed two compounds with 
phosphorus and chlorine; the one is a white powder, com-;; 
posed of about one of phosphorus, and 6.8 of chlorine by ; 
weight, and which he calls phosphorana; the other is a fluid’ 
as clear as water, and its specific gravity is 1.450: he calls it ; 
phosphorane. 
(7) Phosphorus will combine with all the metals except” 
gold and zinc. It unites with iron, and forms that kind of 
iron called cold-short. Iron of such property acquired this 
name on account of its being very brittle when cold, though 
malleable when heated. Such iron may, however, be made 
good and fit for most purposes, by heating it with carbonate 
of lime. (Annales de Chimie, tome xlii. page 832.) 
( 8 ) Several species of animals have the property of emit¬ 
ting light. The light of the glow-worm is well known, but 
the Pyrosoma atlanticum has not been described by natural¬ 
ists. M. Peron, on his voyage from Europe to the Isle of, 
France, observed this animal between three and four degrees 
north latitude. Its phosphorescent quality, (as it has been 
called,) so truly prodigious, renders it one of the most beau 
tiful of all known zoophiles, and its organization ranks it 
amongst the most singular. The darkness was intense when 
it was first discovered; the wind blew with violence, and the's 
progress of the vessel was rapid. All at once there appeared 
at some distance, as it were a vast sheet of phosphorus float¬ 
ing on the waves; and it occupied a great space before the 
vessel. The vessel having passed through this inflamed part 
of the sea, the crew discovered that this prodigious light was 
entirely occasioned by an immense number of small animals, |j 
which swam at different depths, and appeared to assume |j 
What is the nature of these compounds ? f 
Phosphorus forms with oxygen, according to the pro-’ 
portion of the latter, either oxide of phosphorus, or 
phosphorous acid, except it be saturated with oxygen, 
and then phosphoric acid; with hydrogen, phosphuret- 
ted hydrogen; with sulphur, phosphuret of sulphur, 
and sulphuret of phosphorus; with the metals, metallic 
phosphurets; and with some of the earths, earthy phos- 
phurets. 
What is the origin of carbon? 
Pure carbon is found only in the diamond; but it may ) 
be procured in the state of charcoal, by burning a piece- 
of wood closely covered with sand, or any other conve¬ 
nient material, in a crucible, so as to preserve it from 
the action of the atmosphere. 
What compounds are formed by means of carbon ? 
Carbon is capable of forming various combinations: 
it unites with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, (9) sulphur 
or phosphorus, and with iron. 
What is the nature of these compounds ? 
Carbon, with various doses of oxygen,(10) forms car¬ 
bonic oxide, or carbonic acid; with hydrogen and caloric, 
carburetted hydrogen gas; with nitrogen and caloric, 
carburetted nitrogen gas; with sulphur, sulphuret of 
carbon ; with phosphorus, phosphuretted carbon; and 
with iron, plumbago, or carburet of iron. 
Some of these compounds having been already examined, 
it will now be expedient to consider the other states and 
combinations of carbon ; therefore, what is charcoal ? 
Charcoal, which is the combination with which we 
are the most familiar, is the coaly residuum of any 
vegetable substance that has been burnt in close ves¬ 
sels. ( 11 ) 
What are the characters and appearances of charcoal? 
Charcoal is generally black, sonorous, and brittle; 
very light, and destitute of smell.( 12 ) 
What are the properties of charcoal ? 
Charcoal is a powerful antiseptic; (13) when ignited, 
it has great affinity for oxygen;(14) is unalterable and 
indestructible by age;(15) is a non-conductor of elec. 
various forms. Those which were deepest looked like great 
red-hot cannon balls; whilst those on the surface resembled 
cylinders of red-hot iron. Some of them were soon caught, 
and were found to vary in size from three to seven inches. 
All the exterior surface of the animal was bristled with thick 
oblong tubercles, shining like so many diamonds; and these 
seemed to be the principal seat of its wonderful powers of 
emitting light. In the inside also there appeared a multitude 
of little oblong narrow glands, which possessed the same 
virtue in a high degree. The colour of these animals, when 
in repose, is an opal yellow mixed with green; but on the 
slight movement of those spontaneous contractions which it? 
exercises, or those which the observer can at pleasure cause h 
by the least irritation, the animal inflames, and becomes in-.- 
stantly like red-hot iron, and of a most brilliant brightness.* 
As it loses its phosphorescence, (if this property be phospho¬ 
rescent,) it passes through a number of tints successively, ! 
which are extremely agreeable, light, and varied; such as 
red, aurora, orange, green, and azure blue: this last shade is 
particularly lively and pure. A further account of this cu¬ 
rious creature may be seen in one of the early volumes of 
the Journal de Physique. 
(9) The compound formed by the union of carbon and 
nitrogen, is known by the name of prussic gas. It was dis¬ 
covered by Gay Lussac, and by him called cyanogen. It is 
obtained from prussiate of mercury by distillation. It is a 
permanent gas, very inflammable, and nearly twice as heavy 
as atmospheric air. It affects the nostrils violently when 
inhaled by them. 
(10) Messrs. Allen and Pepys have lately shown that char¬ 
coal ought not to be considered as an oxide of carbon; for 
|tricity, and a bad conductor of heat; and if air and 
■ moisture be excluded, is not affected by the most in- 
[tense fire. 
To what uses is charcoal applied ? 
In the preparation of gunpowder, charcoal is a most 
important ingredient; it is also employed in purifying 
rancid oils, and abstracting the color from sirups and 
many other valuable preparations; for decomposing the 
sulphuric salts, which it effects by absorbing the oxygen 
of their sulphuric acid and liberating the sulphur ; and 
for so many other purposes, by the chemist and the 
manufacturer (16), that it would be impossible to enu¬ 
merate them. 
Is charcoal a simple, or a compound substance ? 
Common charcoal is a compound substance: it is an 
oxide of carbon, or the woody fibre partially oxidized; 
if also contains hydrogen, and a portion of fixed alka¬ 
line salt and some earth, but these are rather adventi¬ 
tious than essential ingredients. (17) 
yesterday, and it will probably continue so to the end of the 
world. The incorruptibily of charcoal was known in the 
most ancient times; the famous temple at Ephesus was built 
upon wooden piles, which had been charred on the outside 
|j to preserve them.” (See Watson’s Chemical Essays, vol. iii. 
i-! page 48.) 
“It is said that there still exists charcoal made of corn in 
the days of Csesar, which is in so complete a state that the 
wheat may be distinguished from the rye.” (Willich.) 
“About forty years ago, a quantity of oak stakes were 
found in the bed of the Thames, in the very spot where Ta¬ 
citus says that the Britons fixed a vast number of such stakes, 
to prevent the passage of Julius Caesar and his army. They 
were charred to a considerable depth, retained their form 
completely, and were firm at the heart.” (Dr. Robinson’s 
Introduction to Black's Lectures.) The ancients wrote with 
levigated charcoal, the most indestructible substance we 
know of; and accordingly, the waitings found in Hercula¬ 
neum are still a perfect black. (Ib. vol. ii. page 480.) 
Casks charred in the the inside are now used to preserve 
water in sea voyages; and such casks are found to preserve 
toe water uncorrupted. (Dr. Black’s Chemical Lectures, vol. 
ii. page (285. 
(16.) Charcoal is used by mathematical instrument-makers 
and engravers to polish their brass and copper plates. Plates 
of horn and lantern leaves are polished with it. It is also 
much used by artists in tracing the outlines of drawings. 
(17.) Messrs. Allen and Pepys have lately determined by 
experiment that charcoal properly prepared contains no sen¬ 
sible quantity of hydrogen, but that it absorbs moisture if 
exposed to the air only a few hours, which renders the re¬ 
sult of the analysis uncertain. 
Moneys received between the HOth of Sept, and 24 th October, in 
sums of $5 and over. The total receipts are included from 
post-offices marked with an asterisk.* 
No. Vols, 
^Alexandria, 
* Auburn, 
‘'Boston, 
’'Bowling-Green, 
^Burlington, 
Chatham, 
Clifton Factory, 
Dubuquee, 
"Greensborough, 
‘Hagerstown, 
"Hartford, 
"Johnson’s Springs, 
"Knoxville, 
"Lexington, 
"Lexington, 
"McNary’s, 
o 
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Milwaukie, 
that, when w ell prepared, it requires as much oxygen for its A "Newliern, 
combustion as the diamond; and that diamond, and all puref|"New-Brunswick, 
carbonaceous substances, differ generally from each otherffl*New-York city, 
only in the state of aggregation of their particles. (See Phi-l T 
losophical Transactions for 1807, part ii. page 267.) 
(11) Charcoal, for common purposes, is made by a less 
expensive process. The wood is disposed in heaps regularly 
arranged, and covered with earth, so as to prevent the access 
of any more air than is absolutely necessary to support the 
fire, which is kept up until all the water and oil are driven 
off; after which the fire is extinguished, by shutting up all 
the air-holes. A more economical method is first to collect 
the pyroligneous acid from the wood, by dry distillation in 
large iron cylinders; and then the residuum in the cylinder 
will be charcoal of the best quality. By this process, His 
Majesty’s gunpowder works have for some time past been 
supplied with charcoal. 
(12) Charcoal is so porous that it may be seen through 
with a microscope; and, however large the piece, it may be 
readily blown through. 
(13) “ All sorts of glass vessels and other utensils may be 
purified from long retained smells of every kind, in the ea¬ 
siest and most perfect manner, by well rinsing them out 
with charcoal powder, after the grosser impurities have been 
scoured off with sand and potash. Putrid water is imme¬ 
diately deprived of its offensive smell by charcoal.” (See 
Crell’s Journal, vol. ii. page 170.) 
Meat which is only a little tainted with putridity, may at 
once be made sweet by charcoal; and if common raw spirits 
be agitated with charcoal, they wflll be deprived of tneir bad 
flavour. A gentlemen in the, spirit trade, however, informs 
me that spirits treated in thi:j way are very apt to resume the 
old flavour, if kept in the cask only a few months. 
(14) Charcoal, from its affinity with oxygen, will deconff 
pose the sulphuric and nitric acids. It decomposes the latter 
with great rapidity. If the charcoal be dry and finely pow¬ 
dered, and the acid strong, and allowed to run down the in¬ 
ner side of the vessel to mix with the charcoal, it will burn 
rapidly, giving out a beautiful flame, and throwing up the 
powder so as to resemble a brilliant fire-work. 
(15) “The beams of the theatre at Herculaneum were 
converted into charcoal by the lava which overflowed that 
city; and during the lapse of seventeen hundred years, the 
charcoal has remained as entire as if it had been formed but 
D.C 53 
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Mass. 180 
Ky. 27 
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N.Y. 291 
‘'‘Northampton, 
Norwich, 
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Pikesville, 
"Poughkeepsie, 
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"Rising Sun, 
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Salisbury, 
Sherbrooke, 
"Sing-Sing, 
Springfield, 
St. Catherine’s, 
"St. Louis, 
*Uniontown, 
Urbana, 
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No. Vols. 
Mass. 31 
N.Y. 15 
Pa. 163 
Md. 6 
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R.I. 19 
Md. 7 
la. 21 
N.C 6 
L.C. 16 
N.Y. 27 
Mich. 5 
U.C. 5 
Mo. 70 
Md. 15 
O. 5 
N.Y. 36 
Vt. 22 
Miss. 11 
Mass. 17 
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