MmaumjM i w u.jjiu.TTTTnm i'i i h h i m i iiwmaBMi m m u i i , 
P ~ 
When there is an excess of water after saturization, 
tt evaporates in dry weather, and forms a mud, when 
very wet. 
Before terminating this part of the inquiry, the follow¬ 
ing well known fact is adduced in support of the argu¬ 
ment ; that aration alone is capable of fertilizing land. 
Whence is the source of such fertility ? We know of 
none; if we exclude the air and water, and the improv¬ 
ed digestive powers of the soil, saving the pulveriza¬ 
tion; which, indeed, without these would be next to no¬ 
thing ; therefore these three must be pronounced as the 
real source, which, under the influence of the sun and 
seasons, yield to the hand of industry their hidden trea¬ 
sures, and fixes them in the soil, to be gradually taken 
up by the future vegetation. 
This satisfactory conclusion may at length be drawn, 
that the particles composing a well managed soil are ca¬ 
pable of mechanically retaining and chemically combin¬ 
ing with air and water, and their principles; and also 
with the various products from vegetable and animal 
manures. And this capability of the soil is to be im¬ 
proved, strengthened, and perpetuated, by well-directed 
cultivation; thus proving not only the use, but the ne¬ 
cessity and importance of cultivation. 
To dismiss this interesting chapter without a few re¬ 
marks on the practical parts of the fallow process would 
be incorrect, and to do so it is necessary to review some 
of the operations, and make comments as we proceed. 
The commencing the operation for the fallow in 
the dry part of the autumn is highly necessary, and 
the advantages are these: that the plough presents 
an entire fresh and somewhat dry surface to the influ¬ 
ence of the succeeding winter, instead of the same which 
had been before long exposed during the preceding sum¬ 
mer, and was in consequence become stale, therefore the 
soil would not derive the proportion of benefit it ought 
to do from the ensuing winter’s frosts, rains, and other 
changes, which however will be gained by the par¬ 
ticles of the now fresh turned up surface. Again, 
the land being broken up as dry as it will plough, 
and never mind how rough, the surface not only 
presents a greater number of particles to immediate 
exposure, but being at the same time rather dry 
than otherwise, the winter’s fresh rain and snow enter 
more readily and generally into every part of the clods, 
and alter the manner of lime, crumbles the same to 
powder. Whereas if the same land be ploughed up wet 
so as to knead by the horses, the cavities of the soil, 
from this cause, being already filled with water, like 
the sponge, can receive no more, and therefore from the 
approaching winter there is no chance of it to be again 
moved or become dry. The fresh rains and snows 
which may fall, cannot penetrate through the clods, 
every interstice being already pre-occupied by the for¬ 
mer moisture; and this same quantity thus locked up, 
as the liquid dye in the sponge or cloth, and the air in 
the lungs, when it has parted to the soil all that it 
is capable, the balance of affinities is established by 
the saturation; and no further benefit is to be ex¬ 
pected, except upon the mere surface, where the frosts 
and sun may occasion a dryness. Such land, when 
ploughed in the spring, will, as the expression is, cut 
up whole furrow, instead of being in the fine and tender 
state of the land that was ploughed dry, and now again 
ploughed in a dry time also.* * * § 
With respect to the burying all the stubble and weeds; 
these should always be done when practicable, and if 
done, they will, during the exposure of the winter sea¬ 
son, particularly iu very wet and stiff land, keep the 
same open and porous, and thus, not only make it more 
easily divisible by being blended with the soil, but assist 
the running off of any superfluous water by the hollow¬ 
ness which the stubble naturally occasions, at the same 
time admitting a circulation of the air; besides, what¬ 
ever of the stubble and weeds goes to decay, fertilizes, 
lightens, and improves, at no expense. 
If a person follows the plough in the spring whilst 
stirring that land which was ploughed in the autumn, 
where the stubble and weeds were buried, he will see 
that the land, in turning over, separates readily into 
pieces where the stubble is intermixed, and thus mate¬ 
rially assists in the commencement of its pulverization. 
This stubble, on examination, will he found in a black- 
that the fresh moved soil raised the quicksilver at least 2° 
higher than the unmoved, and selecting a spot just manured 
and fresh moved, the difference of temperature was found 
greater. 
Cultivation increases the powers of decomposition and 
composition of the soil, or fermentation, denoted by the pro¬ 
portioned increase of the growth of plants; likewise by the 
more rapid decay of any vegetable or animal substances con¬ 
tained therein. But vegetables growing in a soil have the 
tendency to lower the temperature of the same, caused, it is 
conceived, partly by their shade, and partly by their very act 
of growing, which by transforming the more solid and li¬ 
quid manures about their roots into a rarer or gaseous form, 
occasions the difference, from the consequent consumption 
of a portion of the surrounding heat taken up in a latent form 
during the rarefaction of any of the above substances. 
It is also known, that fish-manure ploughed in early for a 
fallow, last longer than when ploughed in for a crop on an 
exhausted season. Thus proving again that cultivation 
strengthens the chemical powers of the soil. On the same 
principle farm-yard manure will go further when put on a 
fallow. 
* The best remedy, when the season and time obliges the 
land to be ploughed wet, is to plough the furrows up an 
hedge as much as possible, that, the water may drain away 
the easier, with a greater surface being thus left for the frosts, 
sun, air, &c, to operate upon. Land should never be plough¬ 
ed flat when in a wet and kneady state. 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
ened and mouldy state, like manure, with the green 
weeds quite decayed, excepting the hearts of some of 
those plants that are of the biennial and perennialkinds; 
all this proceeding from the fermentation which ensued 
during the changes of winter, aided by the easy decom¬ 
posable nature of the substance buried, and taking place 
too at a period when vegetation is at the weakest; in 
consequence, the decay of the weeds, rather than their 
vegetation, followed, to the greater benefit of the land. 
Whereas, if the weeds had been suffered to remain un¬ 
molested all the while, they would, at least, continue 
alive, and if a mild winter, have grown. 
The advocates for not ploughing in the autumn, say, 
in their defence, that such lands plough up more tender 
and dry in the spring. Let this be granted, because 
they may argue, that the under soil, not having been 
disturbed by the plough, becomes porous as the roots of 
the former plants decay, as well as retaining uninter¬ 
rupted the old water-courses and cracks, which were 
formed the preceding summer, and thus let off the win¬ 
ter’s rains and snows; also, the old beaten down sur¬ 
face arrests a part of the water which is then dissipat¬ 
ed by the sun and winds that follow. In answer it must 
be observed, the object of the husbandman is not only 
dryness, but an improved fertility by the winter’s expo¬ 
sure, and which cannot take place in an unmoved soil, 
according to what has been already staled, and like¬ 
wise, because the channels and cracks, similar to a fire, 
become hollow, and want stirring ; having had the par¬ 
ticles of the earth lining their surfaces so long exposed 
to the summer’s rain and air, they thus become effectu¬ 
ally saturated as far as they were capable of receiving, 
and in consequence, little or no after benefit can be gain¬ 
ed from the succeeding winter’s rain and snow. Such 
reasoning as the non-autumnal ploughers use, only ap¬ 
plies, if with any force, against those farmers who are 
in the habit of ploughing up their land at that season of 
the year when really too wet.* 
The spring tillage for the fallow comes next; but be¬ 
fore entering upon particulars it may be asked, which 
of the four seasons are those best calculated to crown 
our operations with the greatest success ? The spring 
and early part of the summer are decidedly to be pre¬ 
ferred, the land having of course been previously rough 
ploughed up in the autumn. This opinion is thus de¬ 
fended. 
In the first place, let this question be put, when is ve¬ 
getation the strongest? Why, certainly during the 
spring and early summer months; then of course must 
be the time of the greatest chemical changes with the 
soil, air and water; therefore, the more the land is ex¬ 
posed to the influence of the sun, air, and rain, by cul¬ 
tivation at this important time, the greater will be the 
increase of fertiliza tion. 
To account for all this is the next question, and it is 
thus attempted. That contrasts and extremes, acting 
alternately on matter, produce in general the greatest 
effects, by weakening and destroying the balance of their 
affinities; as is instanced in the familiar case of hot 
water breaking a glass that is cold, and cold water break¬ 
ing a glass that is hot. But the continuance of such 
contrasts for any length of time in either extreme, pre¬ 
serves the equilibrium of their particles unaltered,f as 
for example, paper when dry, and the piles of bridges 
that are always wet. What have we then so favorable 
to the overthrow of the chemical affinities of the soil? 
A winter, the very extreme in its nature to the preced¬ 
ing summer, as being a period overcharged with mois¬ 
ture and cold, in opposition to its dryness and heat. As 
these extremes of wet and cold continue for about six 
months, the very active energies of vegetation, and of 
composition and decomposition, are not to be wondered 
at, when the opposites, heat and dryness,f are increasing 
in their powers in the spring and early summer months, 
till the sun has reached its greatest height and limit.— 
The rays of the sun afterwards, being on the decline, 
become daily less and less powerful, therefore less and 
less effect must be produced, and this explains the cause 
why the vigour of vegetation is then seen to cease,§ and 
with it we naturally infer, the fertilizing effects, as re¬ 
spects composition and decomposition on the soil also, 
with the consequent tendency at the same time to a rest 
in their several affinities; though afterwards the au¬ 
tumn rains come, and vegetation is seen to revive a lit- 
* Land improves very slowly indeed when suffered to lie 
unmoved; if otherwise, the not cultivating of it would of 
course be the cheapest plan; but facts are the reverse, and 
the cause easily explained. Although the unmoved land re¬ 
ceives the effects of the same sun, the same rain and winds, 
yet little fertility is left behind, because the surface parti¬ 
cles are early saturated, when whatever comes afterwards 
is lost to them. No extra heat and chemical powers are com¬ 
municated to the soil by cultivation, no change of position 
of the particles of the soil relative to each other takes place, 
and from being deficient of these essentials, no extra fermen¬ 
tation can ensue, consequently, its improvement in fertility 
must be proportionally small; and this is borne out by facts. 
Therefore, every omittance of cultivation, if a gain in labor, 
is a loss in fertility. 
f The preservation of fish and meat preserved in ice is the 
result of the strong balance of affinities. 
Meat preserved in salt, fruit preserved in close stopped 
jars and bottles, are instances of the same kind. 
X That is to say, though more rain is said to fall in summer 
than in winter, yet it quickly vanishes again, and by its 
evaporation assists, no doubt, in the decomposition. 
§ Upon the same principle may be explained the cause 
why the morning sun has more effect upon vegetation than 
the afternoon. 
tie, yet winter soon follows, and seals up all with its 
frosts. 
OF THE SPUING TILLAGE. 
Should the land be extremely foul, harrowings and 
scarifyings,* with pickings and burnings, must be had 
recourse to whilst the land is in the driest state, and all 
completed, if possible, before the next ploughing. The 
plough may then he introduced and let into the land the 
greatest depth required, that the largest possible mass 
of soil may gain the benefit of the future exposure and 
tillage. With a field fairly clean the ploughing may at 
once commence, as the surface will be quite tender, and 
sufficiently pulverized without the aid of the harrows. 
If the fallow is to be manured, no better time can be 
chosen than the present to be now ploughed in—but 
more of this hereafter. 
During the early spring tillage, he careful to knead 
the land as little as can be avoided, and, as the season 
advances, it is best not to suffer a horse’s foot or a cart¬ 
wheel on the surface until the soil beneath is too dry to 
knead ;f because all the former labor will be in a great 
measure lost, whilst the time is too short to do it over 
again. Nevertheless, should necessity oblige a hus¬ 
bandman to plough his land before it is fit, as he is to 
expect extremes of dry weather instead of the winter’s 
rain, the clods may get perfectly dry, and the spring 
showers falling afterwards would re-pulverize them.— 
The main object is to let the clods be quite dry, when, if 
rain does not fall, they, being returned to the bottom of 
the furrow by the next ploughing, will gain sufficient 
moisture to dissolve and pulverize them. In fact, the 
plan of always ploughing in, when possible, a dry, dusty 
surface, instead of a wet one, is to be preferred, because 
the extremes of dryness of the former surface being turn¬ 
ed to the bottom of the furrow, where there is always 
moisture, which being absorbed in an equal degree by 
the dry soil occasions a rise of temperature readily de¬ 
tected by a thermometer, consequent on the union with 
the moist earth and with the air contained within the 
interstices of the clods. But when the top surface is 
ploughed iuwet, little or no interchange can take place, 
for the reasons before adduced. 
(Remainder in our next.) 
* Scarifying is very well for cleaning land, but never will 
answer as a substitute for the plough; because, a scarifier is 
unable to bring up and turn over the fresh soil of the bottom 
to the top for exposure, like the plough; consequently, the 
top surface soon getting saturated, gains no more benefit from 
the sun, air, and rain, however often the same surface may 
be moved. 
On following the plough, whilst preparing a bean land for 
wheat, mucli of the stubble of the barley crop ploughed in 
for beans was observed undecayed, although the last crop, 
beans, being a drilled one, was horse-hoed at least three 
times. Proving, that the effects of superficial cultivation do 
not descend with much influence below the actual operation; 
also proving, that the lower materials of the soil must be ac¬ 
tually moved, and brought up to the sun. air, &c. before the 
requisite strong fermentation and benefit can ensue. 
f A clayey soil when rammed quite close for the bottom 
of a pond, will remain in a perfect state of the balance of af¬ 
finities for more than a century; for if it did not, it would 
soon lose its property of holding water. Now' land of a clay¬ 
ey nature in a field will be affected similar to the clay at the 
bottom of a pond, if trampled on by horses in a kneady state; 
and the evil will be proportional to the purity of the clay.— 
If it is full of manure and foreign substances, the kneading 
will go off in time, by their fermentation. Pond makers are 
aware of this fact; and therefore carefully eject all vegetable 
and decomposable substances from their clay before ramming 
it down, knowing that they will be the means of destroying 
all their present labors, by breaking down the texture of the 
clay, and thus cause the pond to leak after a few months or 
years. 
Yoirng Men’s Department, 
Chemical Catechism—Chapter IX. 
[j From Par/ces’ Chemical Catechism .] 
of simple combustibles— continued. 
Whut is the substance you call carbon ? 
The base of common charcoal, divested of all impu¬ 
rities, is known to chemists by the name of carbon. 
What is the most striking property of pure carbon. 
Carbon is capable of crystallization, though not by 
art; and in that state it is called diamond.(1) 
(1.) The diamond is chiefly found near Golconda in Asia, 
and in Brazil. It always occurs crystallized; indeed, if not, 
it would be carbon and not diamond. See a note respecting 
the diamond under the article Steel, in the chapter on Me¬ 
tals; where you have an additional proof that diamond is 
simple carbon. It is wonderful that Newton, who had nd 
chemical means of examining the diamond, should have con¬ 
ceived the idea of its inflammable nature. See Additional 
Notes, No. 35. 
Mr. Tennant lias satisfactorily shown that the diamond ia 
pure carbon, carbon crystallized. See Philosophical j Tran¬ 
sactions for 1797. The diamond is the hardest substance in 
nature, and one of its rarest productions. From its hardness 
it is employed for sawing and boreing the hardest stones. It 
is a conductor of electricity, though charcoal is a non-con¬ 
ductor of that subtile fluid. ‘ 1 Diamonds are usually found 
in anochreous yellow earth, under rock ofgrit-slone; they are 
likewise found detached in torrents, which have carried them 
from their beds. The sovereigns of India reserve the largest, 
in order that the price of this article may not fall. Diamonds 
have no brilliancy when dug out of the earth, but are co¬ 
vered with an earthy crust. Diamonds are also found in con¬ 
siderable numbers in the island of Borneo. Whenever the; 
mines are searched for them, an overseer attends, and watehea 
