206 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
Young Men’s Department, 
The Close of the Year 1839. 
( Written for the Cultivator.) 
As the labors of the season draw to a close, it is na¬ 
tural and proper for us to take a review of the past, 
and examine our prospects for the future. The rapid 
flight of time has brought us to the termination of ano¬ 
ther year—a year fraught with interest pleasing and 
painful. 
In taking a retrospective survey of the past, we may 
learn some very important lessons, to guide our course 
for the future. Three years since, we were all buoy¬ 
ancy and hope; the acquiring a fortune was then but 
the woi’k of a day ; a few successful operations in spe¬ 
culation, were to complete the climax of prosperity, 
and conduct whoever ventured to embark in it, at once 
to wealth and fame. The past year has been one of 
unparalelled commercial revulsion. We are now in 
gloom and despondency. Many have learned, by pain¬ 
ful experience, that industry and frugality are the only 
avenues to wealth. We have learned that a fictitious 
Value set upon property does not enhance its real 
worth. 
Although many have suffered severely from this 
blight of their golden dreams, its influence, it is be¬ 
lieved, will be beneficial rather than injurious to com¬ 
munity. Not that we should rejoice over the calami¬ 
ties of any men; far from it; but when men venture 
beyond the soundings of reason, they must expect to 
bring up upon the lee shore of bitter experience. It 
will check in some degree the strong anxiety, so preva¬ 
lent among us, to become quickly rich. It will convince 
us of the greater security of property acquired by per¬ 
severing manual labor, over that accumulated by gam¬ 
bling speculation. It will hold up to our view, the vast 
importance of agriculture, and the dignity of its pur¬ 
suit. It will teach us, it is hoped, effectually, that lux¬ 
ury and extravagance are the bane of prosperity, as 
well as of morality and honesty. 
Notwithstanding the melancholy gloom which has 
spread so extensively throughout the land as to affect 
all classes of the community, the promise of the Great 
Ruler of the Universe, that “seed time and harvest 
should not fail,” has this year been most bountifully 
fulfilled. Nature has not been unmindful of our wants; 
but, as if to show the superiority of her resources over 
those of commerce and the arts, we have occasion to 
rejoice over an unusual abundance of her productions, 
while the other branches of industry suffer an unusual 
depression. 
In our recollections of the past, there is one event 
which we cannot but look upon as a public calamity— 
the death of the respected Editor of the Cultivator. 
The agricultural community, in particular, must feel 
severely the loss of one so zealous and so efficient in 
their cause. In him, the young found a faithful and 
disinterested counsellor: the farmer an able and prac¬ 
tical adviser, and all a warm and generous friend. His 
energetic pen and extensive influence, were exerted for 
the agricultural and intellectual improvement of his 
countrymen. His great aim appears to have been to 
induce the yeomenry of his country to assume the rank, 
intellectually and morally, which they hold politically: 
to make the employment of agriculture more honorable, 
and success in its pursuit more certain—in a word, to 
render man better and happier. Cutoff so suddenly in 
the midst of a career of so extended usefulness, his loss 
cannot but be felt by all who value the interest of their 
country, or the prosperity and happiness of their fellow- 
men. 
The removal from the stage of action, of men so pro¬ 
minent for their usefulness, reminds us, as young men, 
of the duty of preparing ourselves to fill their stations. 
On us is soon to devolve the responsibility of giving cast 
to a nation’s character:—to the character of a nation 
already occupying a conspicuous rank among the em¬ 
pires of the earth; one to which the eyes of all the 
world are turned, to mark its success or overthrow, in 
the bold course it has struck out for itself. It will de¬ 
pend on us, whether the free institutions of our happy 
Republic shall descend in all their original purity to 
succeeding generations, or whether man is yet to mourn 
the unsuccessful attempt to govern himself. 
There appears to be springing up in our country the 
germ of principles antagonist to our republican institu¬ 
tions, and it would be well for us to take warning, and 
shun their evil consequences. Among these, I would 
mention a passion for extravagance, and aping the prac 
tices and manners of European aristocracy—a desire 
prevalent with the young particularly, to live without 
manual labor; and the idea that it is degrading to be 
employed in any kind of productive industry. 
The destruction ofmost of the nationsof antiquity, ce¬ 
lebrated for the impartial justice of their laws, and the 
wisdom of their legislators, can be traced to luxury and 
extravagance. The celebrated historian, Rollin, says 
in his history of the Persians, “'the most judicious his¬ 
torians, the most learned phiosophers, and the pro- 
foundest politicians, all lay it down as a certain, indis¬ 
putable maxim, that whenever luxury prevails, it never 
fails to destroy the most flourishing states and king¬ 
doms; and the experience of all ages and all nations 
does but too clearly demonstiate the truth of the max¬ 
im.” We may boast the most profound statesmen, and 
the most wise legislators, but whether our nation is to 
maintain its rank among the most favored of the earth 
for prosperity and happiness, depends upon ourselves. 
As our government is constituted, we must govern our¬ 
selves well to make it a good government. If we fail 
here, there is no potency in our institutions to make 
us prosperous ; no efficiency in our laws to render us 
happy. 
The desire to be independent of manual labor—to be 
employed in some occupation more honorable, is becom¬ 
ing prevalent in our community. It perhaps arises out 
of our spirit of improvement—from our aspirations af¬ 
ter greater and higher attainments; but its effects are 
prejudicial to our welfare and happiness, individually 
and collectively. I would not check the desire for im¬ 
provement: it is only this unnatural tendency of it that 
I would correct. There is a dignity in industry aside 
from its usefulness, that should commend it to all.- The 
situation of the industrious agriculturist, particularly, 
is one which all might desire. Yours, my young friends, 
is a noble pursuit. Allied to nature in her operations, 
your labors are amid her genial influences, to mould 
and direct her expanding forms to suit the wants of 
man. The All-Wise Creator has so formed our mate¬ 
rial frames, that labor is necessary not only to continue 
our existence, but to promote our happiness. We very 
much mistake our own welfare, therefore, if we would 
aim to live without it. 
Thus much our public—let us now attend to our so¬ 
cial and individual duties. Let us labor individually to 
cultivate those virtues which exalt human nature. Let 
us remember, that without self-improvement, there can 
not be general or mutual improvement. Let us labor 
to improve our intellects by making ourselves acquaint¬ 
ed with the natural sciences—with the operations of 
nature, in the various departments of the physical, the 
vegetable and the animal world. If we once awaken 
our minds to what is boundless and vast in the physical 
world, by taking a view of the unnumbered suns that 
exist in the regions of space and the worlds that roll 
around them: to what is beautiful and harmonious in 
the vegetable world, by observing the form and propor¬ 
tions of plants, and the adaptedness of nature’s means 
to the end in view; and to the symmetry and order in 
the animal world, by observing the agility of animals, 
and their fitness to the situations they occupy, and the 
circumstances under which they are placed ; we shall 
be furnished with motive to still higher improvement— 
that of the moral and religious faculties: for it is be¬ 
lieved, no man in his sober senses, can take a rational 
view of these sublime productions of nature, and not 
be convinced of his obligations to Nature’s Great Au¬ 
thor, and feel a desire to fulfil those obligations. 
Without the cultivation of the moral and religious fa¬ 
culties, we fail to accomplish the great end of our be¬ 
ing ; for, as man stands highest in the scale of animal 
existences, so these faculties occupy the highest rank 
in the mind of man. His other faculties render him a 
noble animal; these assimilate him to God. It is a 
duty, therefore, we owe both to our Creator and to our¬ 
selves, to bestow upon the culture and development of 
these, more abundant attention. As the plants we va¬ 
lue most, receive in proportion a greater share of our 
labor, so these faculties should be nurtured and cherish¬ 
ed with assiduity proportionate to their importance.— 
Let us be reminded, by the events of the past years, 
that we are destined to an existence beyond the present, 
compared with which, in duration and importance, this 
dwindles into insignificance ; and let us so act as most 
effectually to secure our greatest good, both here and 
hereafter. C. P. W. 
Albany, December, 1839. 
Chemical Catechism—Chapter IX. 
[From Parkes ’ Chemical Catechism .] 
or SIMPLE COMBUSTIBLES - concluded. 
Does carbon enter into any mineral combinations ? 
It is imagined that most of the metals may be com¬ 
bined with carbon: but at present we know only of its 
combinations with iron. 
What does carbon form when combined with iron ? 
In one proportion it forms cast iron; in another steel; 
and in a third proportion plumbago, generally, though 
improperly, called black lead.(l) 
What is the proportion of carbon in cast iron ? 
Upon an average, cast iron contains, according to the 
analysis of Bergman, about one forty-fifth of its weight 
of carbon. (2) 
What quantity of carbon enters into the composition of 
steel ? 
(1) The name which plumbago has so long borne shows 
how necessary it was to give a new nomenclature to the 
science. It is now known that its metallic appearance is 
owing to iron; and that there is no lead in its composition. 
Many other instances might be adduced in which the names 
of substances have given false ideas of their nature and pro¬ 
perties:—ilnis, white and green copperas contain no copper, 
but are formed the one with zinc, the other with iron. 
(2) Cast iron does not owe its brittle qualities to the car¬ 
bon which is combined with it; for that iron which contains 
most carbon is found to be the best metal. Cast, iron gene¬ 
rally contains some phosphuret of iron, and frequently a 
portion of oxygen: these substances give it its hard brittle 
quality. To convert cast iron into wrought iron the metal 
is submitted to a long intense heat, by which means, the 
carbon burns; and, uniting with the oxygen, both go off in 
the state of carbonic acid gas. The iron is then carried to 
the forge hammer, which beats out the phosphuret of iron, 
and brings the particles closer together. When the iron is 
required to be pure and good, it undergoes repeated hammer¬ 
ing till it is brought to the desired quality. 
Steel is iron, combined with about one part of carbon 
in two hundred of iron. (3) 
How is carbon combined with iron so as to form plum¬ 
bago ? 
Carburet of iron, or plumbago,(4) has been found to 
consist of nearly nine parts carbon to one of iron. 
You said that carbon formed an acid by its union with 
oxygen : how is that effected ?(5) 
Carbon has so great an affinity to oxygen, that when 
assisted by heat, it will take it from most substances 
with which it may be combined; in certain proportions 
they then form carbonic acid gas. (6) 
What quantity of oxygen is necessary io convert car¬ 
bon into carbonic acid ? 
28 parts by weight of carbon require about 72 parts 
of oxj-gen to saturate them ; so that 100 parts of carbo¬ 
nic acid are composed of nearly 28 parts of carbon and 
72 of oxygen. (7) 
What is the specific gravity of carbonic acid ? 
Carbonic acid can only be exhibited in the form of 
of gas ; each cubical inch weighs about half a grain, 100 
cubical inches having been found to weigh exactly47.2S 
grains. (8) 
What are the properties of carbonic acid gas 1 
Carbonic acid gas is invisible and elastic; is much 
heavier than atmospheric air;(9) will mix with vital 
(3) To procure steel, nothing more is necessary than to 
heat good pure iron for several hours in a proper furnace, 
with charcoal, or any substances proper for furnishing a suf¬ 
ficient quantity of carbon, which is absorbed by the iron in 
the process. Iron has so great an affinity for carbon, that it 
is even capable of decomposing carbonic acid in a high tem¬ 
perature. See Philosophical Magazine, vol. ii. where there 
is an account of a late mode of making steel by fusing soft 
iron in crucibles with carbonate of lime. The diamond, 
which is pure carbon, will also convert iron into steel. This 
was proved by the ingenius Mr. Children, who enclosed a 
diamond within a slit which he had made in one end of a 
large iron wire, and having submitted it to the action of gal¬ 
vanism, the diamond disappeared, and the iron was found to 
be changed into steel. 
(4) Plumbago is found in great plenty, at a place called 
Borrowdale, in Cumberland. Besides making pencils, it is 
likewise useful to rub over wooden machinery, to prevent 
friction. 
According to Fabroni, plumbago is formed in the humid 
way, at the bottom of certain wells in the kingdom of Na¬ 
ples, from whence it is regularly collected every six months. 
Carburet of iron is found also in various parts of the con¬ 
tinent. It often occurs in mountains, in the midst of beds 
of quartz, or calcareous earth. It has sometimes been found 
crystallized in octahedrons. 
Plumbago, like charcoal, is indestructible by beat, unless 
with the presence of atmospheric air. It is therefore much 
used for making crucibles and portable furnaces. It protects 
iron from rust, and on that account is rubbed on various or¬ 
namental cast iron works, such as the fronts of grates, &c. 
(5) Take one of those glass receivers generally used for 
deflagrating the gases; fill it with oxygen gas, and invert it 
in a shallow pan of water. Then having a piece of ignited 
cortical part of charcoal ready, suspend it by a wire to the 
stopper of the receiver, and immerse it quickly in the gas. 
The charcoal will be seen to burn for a considerable time 
with the greatest splendour, throwing out the most beauti¬ 
ful coruscations. When the inflammation is over, the oxy¬ 
gen gas will be consumed, and the water will be found to be 
impregnated with carbonic acid; and if some transparent 
lime-water be poured in, the whole will become opaque from 
the carbonate of lime now formed. 
(6) There can be no doubt that carbonic acid is formed by 
the union of carbon with oxygen; for steel may be made as 
effectually by the decomposition of carbonic acid, as it can 
by the direct union of iron with carbonaceus matter. 
Carbon takes a gaseous form also by combining with hy¬ 
drogen and caloric, and forms what is called carburetted hy¬ 
drogen gas; likewise in the gas discovered by Dr. Priestley, 
and which Mr. Cruikshank named the gaseous oxide of car¬ 
bon. 
( 7 ) Oxygen has a greater affinity for carbon than for most 
other substances. Lavoisier burned small quantities of char¬ 
coal in pure oxygen gas in close vessels, and found that a 
part of this gas was converted into fixed air, or carbonic acid. 
He separated this from the rest of the oxygen by means of 
caustic alkali, and weighed the alkali after it had attracted 
the fixed air. He also expelled the air again by an acid, and 
examined its bulk. Thus he learned the weight of the air, 
and what measure of it had been produced. Then, compa¬ 
ring this weight with that lost by the charcoal which had 
been consumed, he found it to exceed greatly the weight of 
the charcoal; and that it was exactly equal to the weight of 
the charcoal added to that portion of the oxygen gas which 
had been changed into fixed air. Dr. Black’s Lectures on 
Chemistry, vol. ii. page 100. 
The composition of carbonic acid has been further proved 
by analysis, as it has actually been decomposed, and the 
charcoal exhibited entire. See Mr. Tennant’s experiments 
on fixed air, in Philosophical Transactions, vol. lxxxi. page 
181. When a diamond is burnt, the proportions are similar 
to the above, for diamond is the purest carbon we are ac- 
qainted with. 
Carbonic acid gas may be readily procured for experiment 
by pouring a little diluted sulphuric acid into a phial, or a 
retort, upon a little pulverized chalk. An action will imme¬ 
diately commence; arid if one end of a bent tube be made 
fast in the neck of the phial, and the other brought under 
the mouth of a jar filled with water, and inverted in a ves¬ 
sel of water, the gas will pass from the mixture into the in¬ 
verted jar. 
(8) When charcoal is burnt in oxygen gas, every 100 cu¬ 
bical inches of the gas, which originally weighs 33.75 grains, 
will then weigh 47.28 grains; and as the gas acquires no al¬ 
teration in volume, this shows that 100 cubical inches of ox¬ 
ygen will combine with 13.51 of charcoal. 
(9) This gas, on account of its density, may be poured from 
one vessel to another, like water; or may be drawn from a 
cask by a cock like other fluids. In consequence of its great 
