TOE SUBSTANTIVE. 
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Note 1.— Ai is generally pronounced like the German a or e. 
Note 2.— Stems ending in a vowel, especially those ending in i and e, very 
often form their genitive in si. Example : Ishesi khangpa, Ishe’s house. 
The Instrumental.— 
1. In stems ending in a consonant, the s of the ending is is frequently 
combined with the i to a long i, so that the pronunciation of the instru¬ 
mental is very much like that of the genitive. In stems ending in a 
vowel, the s is pronounced as e or i —thus mangpos = mangpoe. [In the 
dialects of some villages near Leh the s is distinctly heard, and in Leh 
itself this pronunciation is not considered “ foreign.”] 
Note. —Stem sending in a vowel, especially those ending in i and e, very often 
form also their instrumental in si. Example : memesi zers, grandfather said. 
2. Besides the instrumental with a case ending, the Ladakhi has one 
formed with dang or other postpositions, We must distinguish between 
the two:— 
(а) the instrumental with a case ending is the case of the agent. 
In transitive sentences it takes the place of the nominative in 
English, Example: ngas specha do silpen , I have read that 
book. 
Note. —Only in a few idioms is this instrumental not used instead of the nornh 
native. Examples: kho miggis dzinna nadug, he cannot see well with the eye; 
ringgo khas khors, the summits are covered with snow ; khas hlobba zum , learn it 
with the mouth (by heart). 
(б) the instrumental with dang , etc., is used, if the person or thing 
performing an action makes use of further means for that 
purpose. Example: rgyalpos mizhig raggi dang saddug , 
the king kills a man with the sword. Vang is often strength¬ 
ened by the addition of nyampo, together. 
Other postpositions which imply an instrumental sense are : rgonas 
and khanas , through, with the genitive. Example : mi del a. mill mangpo 
las cocessi rgonas [or khanas'] thob,— that man got much money by work¬ 
ing [doing work]. 
The Vative. —The dative is not so particularly the case of the indirect 
object as an intensified form for the direct object. The ending la is, in 
ordinary conversation, simply pronounced as a short a. 
The dative is especially used to denote the possessor, etc., with the 
verbs to have, to receive, to need. Example : ngala khangpa zhig, yod - 
thob } rgos } I have, have got, need a house. 
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