26 
LADAKHI GRAMMAR. 
tangs. This s is, however, often omitted, and then the perfect stem is not 
different from the present stem. An s is not added : 
(a) if the present stem ends in s, as for instance in shesces , 
to know; 
before f (b) if the present stem ends in d and n ; 
an ending l (c) if it ends in l and r, s is also often omitted. 
The perfect stem is nsed in the following forms: Past tense, past 
participle, gerunds in te and pasang. 
Note.—I n the Tangtkang dialect, the perfect stem is not different from the 
present stem. 
3. The imperative stem .—It is formed from tho present stem by 
adding an 5 to the latter and by changing the a of the root to o. The 
s of the imperative stem is always nsed before the ending cig, and 
without this ending in stems ending in a vowel. It is also often placed 
before the ending tong . The imperative stem is only used in the 
affirmative imperative. 
Note 1.—In the verb zaces, to eat, the perfect stem is identical with the 
imperative stem. It is the only verb which changes the vowel for the past. In 
simple form the imperative does not take an s. Examples: zo y eat; zoshig 
<=. zoscig, see Laws of sound, p. iv), eat; zos t zospin , I ate ; zothsar t eaten up. 
Note 2.— The verb * to go ’ has two roots— cha and song. Cha is used in all cases 
in which other verbs take the present stem ; song is used for the perfect and impera¬ 
tive stems. Examples: chaces, to go ; chain , going or shall go ; cliarug , chaad , we* 
you go ; songste, going ; songthsar, has gone ; song, go ; ma cha, do not go. 
Note 3.— Because the s of the perfect and imperative stems is not used 
regularly, it will always be given with the endings.. 
Forms of the Vekb. 
The infinitive. —The Ladakhi infinitive ends in ces or ce in Central 
Ladakh, in cas in Lower Ladakh, and in ce in Rong or Upper Ladakh. 
Besides this Ladakhi infinitive, the classical infinitive in ha or pa is 
also used sometimes, especially with phila, for; thus Mai phila, for 
being so. 
The supine. —The Ladakhi endings are casla , cesla , cea, according 
to the respective districts. 
Besides this Ladakhi supine, the classical supine in ^arand bar is still 
used in Ladakh. It is never pronounced in full, it generally appears as 
a simple a. If the stem of the verb ends in a consonant, the consonant is 
