THE VERB. 
37 
Quite irregular is zhonces , to ride j causative, skyonces, to put on a 
horse (make ride). 
A few verbs take s, but without a causative sense. Example: phang- 
oes, to throw away ; spangces to give up (in a spiritual sense). In most 
cases, however, phangces is used both ways. 
The modern causative with chugces has the same construction as the 
compound verbs. 
Compound verbs. 
Compound verbs are those with two syllables in the stem. 
In the affirmative the termination or the auxiliary is placed after the 
second of the two syllables. Examples : hagoste, understanding ; cha - 
chug dug, makes go, sends away ; hagospin, I understood. 
In the negation of past and future the negative particle is placed be¬ 
tween the two syllables of the stem. Examples : nga darung nyid mi 
login , I shall not yet sleep; ha ma gos, he did not understand ; yong mi 
chugin, I shall not make him come; yong ma chugspin , I did not make him 
come. 
In the negation of the present tense the two syllables are not sepa¬ 
rated, and the latter of the two syllables takes the a of the supine. Exam¬ 
ples : nyid logga mi dug, he does not sleep; ha goa mi rag, I do not un¬ 
derstand ; cha chugga mi dug , he does not make him go. 
Passive Constructions.* 
1. In verbs with two stems (see ancient causative) the simple or 
neuter form is used for the passive, the causative form for the active. 
Example: hhangpa zhig thsar, the house was destroyed ; khangpa de 
shigkhanni mi, the man, destroying the house (who destroyed the house). 
2. Of the two participles the present participle has an active meaning, 
the past participle a passive meaning. Example : tangkhanni mi, the send¬ 
ing man, the man who sends, is active ; tangskhanni mi, the sent man, 
the man who was sent, is passive. 
3. A passive of some active transitive verbs is formed by putting 
them in the gerund in te and taking dug or yodiov auxiliary. Examples : 
khyongste dug , it is brought ; ige driste dug, the letter is written. This 
form cannot be used with all verbs, but is idiomatic with many verbs. 
4. Most forms of the past may be used in an active sense as well as in 
a passive sense (with active transitive verbs ). 
_ 
*.The constructions ngas cospin, etc., must not be considered as passives ; ngas 
cospin does not mean * it was done by me,’ but ‘ by me was doing.’ 
