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LADAKHI GRAMMAR. 
In the active the subject takes the instrumental, and the object the 
accusative or dative. Example : ngas las de cospin, I have done the 
work. 
In the passive the object of the action is put in the nominative. Ex¬ 
ample : las de cothsar , the work was done. 
5. All active transitive verbs form the passive indirectly by changing 
the order of the sentence. Thus the nominative of the English passive 
sentence is changed to the dative or accusative of an active sentence. 
Thus instead of ‘ I am loved,’ we say ‘ he, she, it loves me.’ Examples : 
khos ngala yasha corug, he makes love to me, I am loved; khos ngala 
rdungdug, he beats me, I am beaten by him. 
The Dubitative. 
1. Supine in a and yoddro, sometimes contracted to addro. Example: 
tangnga yoddro, perhaps he will give. 
2. Stem of the verb and indro. Example : tangindro , perhaps he will 
give. 
3. In Lower Ladakh inthsogs, joined to the stem, is often used 
with a dubitative meaning. Example: tanginthsogs, perhaps he will give. 
Also khag, kyag, joined to the stem of the verb, is often used in a similar 
sense. 
Note. —In many cases cishe , who (what) knows, put at the beginning of the 
sentence, will suffice. 
Auxiliaries. 
The Ladakhi makes use of three words meaning ‘ to be*: dugces, 
inces, and yodces. These may often be used alternatively. All form a 
preterite : dugs or dugsong, inben, yodpin. In the past, yodpin is the most 
generally used. A future is formed by dugces only : dugin. The future 
tenses of chaces, to go, become, and yongces, to come, to happen, are often 
used instead. 
The negations are: midug, man ( main ), med ( mi yod), for the present 
tense; ma dugs, ma dugsong, medpin, for the past; mi dugin for the 
future tense. 
Cases in which only one of the three can be used :— 
yodces is used to signify a possession (= to have). Example : ngala 
specha sum yod, I have three books. 
If a condition has to be expressed by a sentence the predicate of which 
is not a verb, yod and in are used before the na of the condition. 
