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LADAKIII GRAMMAR. 
For connecting whole sentences, instead of dang the gerund in te is 
used; often yang, and, also, placed at the head of the following sentence, 
may be added. Example : kho iru yongste, logste song , or kho iru yongste f 
yang logste song , he came here and went back again. 
yang, when repeated, has the meaning of ‘ as well as ’ (Latin et—et). 
Example : thruggu yang yongs , ama yang yongs, the child came as well 
as the mother. 
yangna means ‘or,’ and is used for connecting several subjects, 
objects, etc., in a contracted sentence. Example: ser yangna mwl ci 
khyongnayang, gold or silver whatever you bring, 
In many cases the ‘ or * connecting coordinate sentences is expressed 
in the following way : the verb of the first sentence takes the a of the 
interrogative, the second sentence is affirmative, no conjunction is placed 
between the two. Example: ladagsla chenna, khaculla chen , will you 
go to Ladakh, or will you go to Kashmir ? 
yangna, repeated, means ‘either—or’: yangna rtsogpo inna yangna 
lenba inna, ngas mi skes, either he is wicked or he is lazy, I do not know. 
For expressing ‘ but,’ inkyang , inskyang, innayang may be used; but 
it must be mentioned that Ladakhis practically do not use these words 
at all. (In the Kesarmyths—60 large pages—none of these words can 
be found.) 
Another Ladakhi way of expressing ‘ but ’ is that of using ni, ning l 
in the sentence with ‘ but.’ Example : nga songpin, kho ning ma song , 
I had gone, but he had not; mikun song , khurru ning ma khyers , the men 
are gone, but the loads are not taken. 
A conjunction ‘ for ’ does not exist in Ladakhi. As the Kesarmyths 
show, the Ladakhis are not in need of it. It may be expressed by ci 
phila zerna , if one asks why, or simply ci phila , cila may be used. 
II. — Subordinate conjunctions. —As many of the conjunctions are 
properly speaking relatives ( garu the terminative case, ganas the ablative 
case), the use of the relatives must be defined first. Most of the English 
subordinate conjunctions do not exist in Ladakhi, and have to be 
expressed by other words and forms. 
1. Use of the relative pronouns :—If the subject, object, or adverbial 
adjunct of the chief sentence be expressed by a subordinate sentence, then 
the subordinate sentence is introduced by a relative pronoun. Then the 
subordinate sentence is placed before the chief sentence and often 
takes the na of the condition. Examples: sus ngazhala yasha cona t 
