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THE WILSON JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY . Vo/. 123. No. 4. December 2011 
use of the horizontal tubes. We also found that 
only 20% of our horizontally-mounted larger 
tubes (offering >17 cm vertical depth.) were used 
by starlings, whereas native species occupied 60% 
of these larger tubes. 
A variety of factors can influence starling nest 
cavity selection (McGilvrey and Uhler 1971, Van 
Balen et al. 1982), and we suggest the 9.5-cm 
vertical depth of our smaller tubes was a limiting 
factor for starling use in our study. We believe the 
smaller tubes could meet the requirements of 
other native, secondary cavity-nesting passerines 
and the effects of vertical cavity depth on cavity 
use by starlings should be further investigated. 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
Our study was funded by the U.S. Department of 
Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 
W.ldhfe Services, National Wildlife Research Center We 
thank M E. Conger and D. E. Steyer for field assistance, 
and E. J. Poggiali lor logistical assistance. P. M. Schmidt T 
-L. DeVault, J. T. Tyson, and B. E. Washburn provided 
reviews of earlier versions of this manuscript. 
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