Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 70 (Suppl. 1): 9-31. 2018 
doi: 10.26492/gbs70(suppl.l). 2018-02 
9 
The biological, ecological and conservation significance 
of freshwater swamp forest in Singapore 
E. Clews', R.T. Corlett 2 , J.K.I. Ho 3 , D.E. Kim 1 , C.Y. Koh 3 , S.Y. Liong 1 , R. Meier 3 , 
A. Memory 1 , S.J. Ramchundei 11 , T.M. Sin 1 , H.J.M.P. Siow 5 , Y. Sun 1 , H.H. Tan 6 , S.Y. 
Tan 6 , H.T.W. Tan 3 , M.T.Y. Theng 1 , R.J. Wasson 7 , D.C.J. Yeo 3 & A.D. Ziegler 4 
‘Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, 
18 Kent Ridge Road, 117229 Singapore 
tmsec@nus.edu.sg 
2 Xishuanbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 
Menglun, Yunnan, RR. China 
^Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 
14 Science Drive 4, 117543 Singapore 
“^Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, 
1 Arts Link, 117570 Singapore 
5 National Biodiversity Centre, National Parks Board, 
1 Cluny Road, 259569 Singapore 
6 Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum, National University of Singapore, 
2 Conservatory Drive, 117377 Singapore 
7 Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore, 
469C Bukit Timah Road, 259772 Singapore 
ABSTRACT. The Nee Soon stream drainage in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve is 
virtually the last remaining fragment of primary freshwater swamp forest in Singapore. The 
forest type has been poorly studied in the Southeast Asia. The hydrology, water quality, as well 
as aquatic flora and fauna all have great theoretical and practical significance. The ecology and 
management of the Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest are reviewed, with remarks on their 
national, regional and global contexts. This review sets the scene for a three-year integrated 
conservation and management study completed in 2016. 
Keywords. Biodiversity, climatology, hydrology, nutrient cycle, research gaps, tropical wetlands 
Introduction 
Globally, freshwater swamp forests occur in Southeast Asia, Africa, and South America, 
with the largest proportion in the Amazon basin (Richards, 1996). In Southeast Asia, 
they are located throughout the region, often near large rivers such as the Mekong 
and Chao Phraya in Thailand, and the Irrawaddy in Myanmar, and in many smaller 
systems such as the Sedili rivers in Johor (Corner, 1978; Whitmore, 1984). 
This unique forest formation is mostly restricted to the alluvial soil of flood 
plains, often on the landward side of mangrove forests or in areas with a high water 
table (Goltenboth et al., 2006). While freshwater swamp forests are often located in 
areas with a wet climate, they are also found in seasonally drier regions such as in west 
New Guinea and east Java (Whitmore, 1984). 
